Chickamauga and Chattanooga Administrative History

A. General Administration and Personnel

From inception of the federal government's role in the establishment of Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park direction of its early affairs lay in the hands of the three-man Commission appointed by the Secretary of War. According to the 1890 act establishing the park, each commissioner "shall have actively participated in the battle of Chickamauga or one of the battles about Chattanooga. . . ." Two of the commissioners were to be civilian, and one was to be detailed as secretary from the regular army. Their offices would remain in Washington, [1] although one of them, Alexander P. Stewart, resided near the park and directly supervised road construction there. As indicated, the commissioners who governed the establishment of the park were all veterans of the engagements around Chattanooga in 1863. Chairman Joseph S. Fullerton of Missouri had served on the staff of Union Major General Gordon Granger. Stewart was a divisional commander of the Confederate Army of Tennessee, and Kellogg had served on Thomas's staff. Boynton, who was historical aide at the park, had been a lieutenant colonel of the Thirty-fifth Ohio Infantry during the Battle of Chickamauga. [2]

The Commission, with various members, functioned until 1921, when the Secretary of War assumed its duties. The first change in composition was the departure of Secretary Kellogg, who was replaced by Major Frank G. Smith, Second Artillery, on December 31, 1893. [3] Following the death of Chairman Fullerton in 1897, Boynton advanced to fill the vacancy. His old position as historical aide went to Henry M. Duffield, a Civil War veteran. When the War with Spain began both Boynton and Duffield were commissioned brigadier generals of volunteers, but continued in their respective duties at the park. [4] Boynton, in addition, was to "represent the Secretary of War and be obeyed accordingly in enforcing the regulations. . . for the government of the park." [5] By 1899 another historical aide--"the assistant in Confederate work"--was also on the commission staff. He was Chattanooga resident James P. Smartt, whose major task was to collect "information upon unsettled points from the veterans who visit the fields." (In 1912 Smartt became the "assistant in historical work.") [6]

Boynton's long association with the park ended with his death on June 3, 1905. Five days later his hand-picked successor was appointed chairman. Ezra A. Carman had served during the Civil War as a colonel of New Jersey infantry and was a noted supporter of the national military park concept. [7] Only Alexander P. Stewart, the resident commissioner, remained of the three original appointees. He and Carman technically earned salaries of $3,600 per year, although in 1907 illness waylaid Stewart and he drew no income. [8] Stewart died August 30, 1908, and his position was filled by Joseph B. Cumming of Georgia, destined to be last of the commissioners. In December, 1908, now-retired Brigadier General Smith, for fifteen years secretary of the Commission, requested his relief. The vacancy was filled by a medal of honor winner, retired army colonel John Tweedale. [9]

Other changes followed. Carman died on Christmas Day, 1909; one month passed before former colonel and Ohio congressional representative Charles H. Grosvenor was appointed his successor as chairman. Then, in May, 1910, Tweedale requested his relief as secretary and was replaced by W.J. Colburn of Tennessee. Baxter Smith, also of Tennessee, was designated assistant secretary in April, 1910. [10] Commissioner Colburn left office in September, 1911, and was replaced by John T. Wilder, who had led Indiana troops at Chickamauga. [11] On September 9, 1914, Historical Assistant Smartt expired. The Commission decided against filling the vacancy, [12] but commended the memory of Smartt, "whose long years of faithful and loyal service contributed in no small degree to the correct and accurate markings on the battlefields in and around Chattanooga." [13]

The demise of the Commission occurred quickly thereafter. Wilder died October 20, 1917. Within ten days Chairman Grosvenor, age eighty-five, died at his home in Ohio and the Secretary of War designated Cumming as chairman. No replacements were made for the deceased members. Assistant Secretary Smith died in June, 1919, and Cumming himself expired three years later. [14]

Throughout the Commission's existence, on-site direction of park work was vested in the resident assistant superintendent, William Tillman, who was assisted by a staff of six, all of whom resided on the battlefield. [15] Park offices were variously located; when the park was created the administrative facility appears to have been in Chattanooga but was moved shortly to Crawfish Springs. In 1893 the office was moved to Chattanooga. [16]

During the early years much friction occurred among Commission members, particularly between Secretary Kellogg and his civilian counterparts. Kellogg felt that his efforts to keep expenses down were unsuccessful, and he addressed the Secretary of War on the matter:

Considerable useless and expensive construction and clearance work has been done; inordinately high prices have been paid and are to be paid for lands; unnecessary legal expenses have been created in the United States Court. All this I have been powerless to prevent. [17]

Kellogg recommended, "to expedite the completion of this immense project," that an "Executive Officer" be designated within the Commission who would wield authority in all areas of administration, It is possible that Kellogg was motivated by an animosity towards him by Fullerton and Stewart. "All of the correspondence between Commissioner Fullerton and Stewart has, of late, assumed a personal form not always suitable for filing. . . ," he wrote. "None of it is addressed to or through the Secretary of the Commission." [18] When word of the allegations reached Fullerton and Stewart, they were furious. Responded Stewart:

The whole communication seems to me an unjustifiable and unnecessary arraignment of General Fullerton and myself, as wholly unworthy of confidence, and a request for the appointment of Secretary Kellogg to the supreme control of the work of the Commission. For myself, I respectfully decline to be a subordinate of his, or to submit in any way to be reprimanded or disciplined by him. [19]

Both Stewart and Fullerton lodged strongly-worded letters with the Secretary of War protesting Kellogg's complaints. Soon after Kellogg was reassigned to Paris, effectively ending the dispute. [20]

The work of establishing the national military park extended beyond its dedication. The commissioners directed further tasks of road building, land acquisition, and erection of markers, tablets, and monuments. Total expenditures for fiscal year 1895 stood at $49,585.13. In 1896 another $75,000 was appropriated to continue the work. [21] By the end of the year the detailed topographic maps of the battlegrounds, so long in preparation, were complete, [22] providing an important resource document to aid in future development and interpretation at the park. In 1897 Congress appropriated another $75,000 for the park's establishment, and in the following year, despite the presence of thousands of soldiers in the park mobilized for the Spanish-American War, $60,000 was allotted. [23] Although the commission chairman notified the War Department early in 1901 that the park would be fully established by the end of 1902, congressional appropriations continued to be made as late as 1918 "for continuing the establishment's" of the park. In 1905 $31,000 was authorized for the project; in 1918 $55,260 was appropriated. [24]

After the shortlived War with Spain the troops assembled at Chickamauga Park were reassigned or went home, leaving many clean-up operations to the park staff. As of December, 1898, all park employees were placed under the direction of Engineer Betts, who was charged with the daily management of the area. "His orders will be obeyed, subject to the supervision and approval of the Commissioners. . . ." [25] Betts had served as Park Engineer since 1891; he would continue as de facto superintendent until 1911 and was responsible for much of the park's early development, including many of the maps prepared under the auspices of Kellogg and Boynton. [26] The position of assistant superintendent was downgraded to that of ranger, or "mounted guardian." Two rangers were assigned to the Georgia portion of the park, one served Lookout Mountain, another Missionary Ridge, and another Orchard Knob. Also employed under the engineer were a rodman, a bookkeeper, a stenographer, an office boy (who doubled as a draftsman and photographer), a painter, a carpenter, a general laborer, and a stableman-driver. [27] The employees were allowed certain privileges; in 1899, for example, the commissioners granted the "guardians" an allotment of land for garden purposes "sufficient for . . . family needs." [28]

The Commission administered the growth of the park primarily from its Washington office. Occasionally progress was disrupted by unforeseen events. In 1899 two floods and a tornado caused heavy damage, necessitating extended labor that brought a financial deficiency "for the first time in the history of the park." [29] Throughout this period the process of erecting markers and monuments went on as before, and in 1901 the City of Chattanooga passed ordinances protecting the Commission's work within the city limits, including the placement of bronze locality tablets and condemned cannons. [30] Sometimes the commissioners found themselves at odds with their state counterparts over matters of accuracy or objectivity in the latter's annual reports, such as occurred with the Indiana Commission's report in 1902. [31]

In the early 1900s economy in all the national military parks (Chickamauga and Chattanooga, Gettysburg, Shiloh, and Vicksburg) became a prime concern. At Chickamauga and Chattanooga park savings were increased by reducing the number of guardians to one and giving him the authority of a deputy U.S. Marshal. Simultaneously, the head of each labor force was given the authority of the former guardians. "This very largely increases the force of caretakers, at the same time that it decreases the cost of park supervision. . . , since the foremen and laborers, now exercising the authority of guardians, perform this service without extra pay." [32]

As of 1906 the staff (including commissioners) of Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, together with their salaries, consisted of the following:

In addition, from ten to forty persons were employed throughout the year as day laborers drawing wages of from $1.00 to $1.50 per day. A number of drivers and their wagons were also hired irregularly, with compensation of $2-$3.00 per day. [33]

The major expense of running four such parks as Chickamauga and Chattanooga, however, eventually caused the Secretary of War, as well as certain congressmen, to propose the consolidation of the four national commissions into one of three or five members. "The conditions that now prevail," wrote Secretary of War William H. Taft, "result in salary rolls out of all proportion to the total expenditures for improvement." [34] Nonetheless, the commissioners were able to stave off their demise for several years, although Congress did manage a change in the composition of the Commission, replacing the army representative with a civilian. Finally, in 1912, Congress, unable to pass legislation for a single commission for all the parks, agreed to gradually transfer the commissions' duties to the Secretary of War as attrition of their membership occurred. [35]

Another move towards economy and efficiency lay in the removal of the office of the National Commission from Washington. Park headquarters and temporary commission office were in Chattanooga's Custom House (from November, 1908, to September, 1909, they were in the James Building while repairs were completed on the Custom House), and by 1910 congressional efforts were directed to moving the commissioners there permanently. [36] "It is near the park," stated the Secretary of War, "where so much administrative work is carried on, and it will be convenient for visitors to the park to come into touch with some representative of commission there." [37] On April 10, 1910, the park enabling act was amended to provide for the Commission's move to Chattanooga with a salary established at $300 per month. [38]

The first meeting of the "Board of Commissioners" in its new Chattanooga office took place May 5, 1910. A set of rules and regulations was adopted strictly governing the actions of the Commission and all transactions of the advisory body were made subject to the approval of the Secretary of War. Regular meetings observing parliamentary procedures were to be held "on the second Thursday of January, May and October," with special meetings called at the discretion of the chairman. The Commission would take special note of its finances, with all expenditures made by approved vouchers and charged to designated appropriations. [39] These rules and regulations remained in effect for a year. Then, in an extraordinary action that divided the body, they were precipitately abolished, apparently to suit the convenience of Chairman Grosvenor, who desired to remain at his home in Athens, Ohio. By a vote of two to one, the following procedural course was adopted:

That this commission in the discharge of its duties will act upon such matters as are within its jurisdiction at any time and in any place where such action is necessary and proper for the government, management and administration of the affairs of . . [Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military] Park, all of its proceedings in matters requiring approval of the Secretary of War to be forwarded without delay of the Chairman to the War Department for the approval or disapproval of the Secretary. [40]

The Commission also abolished the office of Park Engineer as of July 1, 1911, and appointed a Superintendent to direct work and administer affairs of the park looking to "the control, management, care and protection of its physical interests. . . ." [41]

The action of the Commission in repealing its governing regulations, rumored to be because of Grosvenor's personal whim, created controversy in Chattanooga. Word circulated that the headquarters of the Commission had been relocated to Athens, Ohio, and it became known that Grosvenor had spent but nine days in 1910, and only five in 1911, at the park. Adding fuel to the matter was the attempt by Grosvenor and Commissioner Cumming, to have the dissenting member, W.J. Colburn, removed. The intervention of President Taft prevented the ouster, but Colburn eventually departed and the experience left the Commission in a turmoil. [42] In October, 1911, Grosvenor announced in Chattanooga that the reported removal of the park office "was without foundation or fact." [43] Under the new arrangement the superintendent of Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park was Richard B. Randolph, who had formerly been chief clerk. An attempt to procure Randolph an automobile for use in the park was rejected by the War Department as unwarranted. [44]

Such problems as these with the Commission were greatly alleviated with passage of the 1912 act providing for the Secretary of War to assume the duties of members vacating their offices by death or resignation. [45] In May, 1922, Commissioner Cumming died at age eighty-seven, the last of the line that began in 1890. The War Department thus became sole administrator of the park, with Superintendent Randolph assuming the role of chief executive officer. [46] During the post-World War I years the duties of the park staff remained the same, although the number of employees dropped considerably with the end of the Commission. As of June, 1930, permanent park positions had been reduced to the following personnel, with their salaries:

In addition, a fluctuating number of temporary employees assisted in maintaining the park. In June, 1930, there were forty-six such people employed. [47] Regulations published in 1931 by the War Department laid down personnel requirements for positions in all the national military parks. Notably, superintendents "should have a military background and have full knowledge of military history." [48] And two years later the War Department issued a circular prohibiting the employment of female guides in any of the parks. [49]

The years of War Department control over Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park were fraught with questions concerning usage of the tract for military purposes. An act approved in 1896, allowed for such usage, but it clearly conflicted with the preservation ideal embraced by the initial park concept. The greatest concentrations of troops occurred there during the Spanish-American War and World War I, when considerable destruction took place. Moreover, ongoing rivalry of authority between park administrators and the Army followed the 1904 establishment of Fort Oglethorpe within the northeast edge of the Chickamauga tract. [50] Thereafter, military manuevers became annual events at Chickamauga Park, much to the discomfiture of the park staff. By the late 1920s, when transfer of the national military parks, battlefields, and cemeteries, to the Department of the Interior was contemplated there was much opposition to the idea as concerned Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park because of the presence of Fort Oglethorpe. Wrote one opponent:

As a general rule, the control of National Parks by the Department of Interior may be advisable, but we believe Chickamauga Park offers an exception to the general rule and should be treated separately for the reason that it is adjacent to Fort Oglethorpe, a Military Post with a reservation of approximately 400 acres, of which only a small portion is suitable for training purposes, and which has necessitated the use of Chickamauga Park for training troops. The use of and future value of Fort Oglethorpe as a Military Post would therefore seem to be contingent upon the continued use of Chickamauga Park for military purposes.

Furthermore, the military authorities have always relied upon the use of Chickamauga Park in connection with any proposition involving the use of Fort Oglethorpe for training purposes as evidenced during the Spanish-American War and the late World War, when Chickamauga Park was one of the most important mobilization and training centers. During each of these periods there were assembled as many as fifty thousand men in Chickamauga Park. [51]

Despite arguments against the park's transfer the action was inevitable when the National Park Service took over administration of all national military parks and cemeteries in August, 1933. [52] Thereafter, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park was administratively under the Department of the Interior, although use of the park for military purposes as outlined in the enabling act went unchanged.

B. Park Development

Almost from the beginning park efforts were geared towards development of the fields into a conceptually integrated unit of lands and roads that sensibly conveyed the progress of the various battles commemorated by the park. To that end, work was devoted to restoring the fields to their appearance in 1863, with "no work . . . done for purely decorative purposes." Only lines and structures that had figured importantly in the fighting and had since been destroyed were to be restored to their earlier condition. [53] From 1890 to 1892, besides purchasing the necessary land parcels, the commissioners concentrated on laying out and building roads and appropriate entrances into the park. In 1892, the heavy underbrush and timber were removed on the field at Chickamauga, thereby permitting greater ease in determining battle positions. The old roads on the battlefield, those present in 1863, were located and reopened. "Over ten miles of the main roads . . . have been rebuilt in a substantial manner, five miles more are graded and are being surfaced, and a heavy force is engaged in prosecuting this portion of the work," reported Commissioner Kellogg. [54] Plans were made to continue road construction along the crest of Missionary Ridge so that the drive through Chickamauga Park north to the Chattanooga area would approximate twenty-two miles. [55] Substantial appropriations by Congress financed these operations through the 1890s. [56] Two paramount objectives of the Commission during this period comprised the acquisition of the property along Missionary Ridge where General Sherman's troops were engaged on November 25, 1863, and the area below the summit of Lookout Mountain where on November 24, 1863, the battle between Union and Confederate forces grew most severe. The latter goal was achieved on March 3, 1893, when the area surrounding the Cravens House became Lookout Mountain Battlefield Park. The house itself was purchased by the government in September, 1896, from heirs of the Cravens family. [57] In Chattanooga arrangements were completed for the purchase of the land around Orchard Knob, and by September, 1895, the site was rapidly being prepared for the dedication, the work involving erection of a flagpole, and placement of six field pieces and several iron interpretive tablets. [58]

Similar work ensued. In 1897 the Lookout Mountain battlefield was cleared of underbrush and paths built for the access of visitors. Historical tablets were placed designating artillery, brigade, and division positions. [59] Two years later a private photographic parlor was established for lease at Point Park, above Lookout Mountain battlefield, perhaps the earliest cognate enterprise to be associated with the national military park. [60] Restrictions were placed on the establishment, with construction and location of the photographer's booth to be approved by the Park Engineer, "the rent to be payable monthly in advance, and the surroundings to be kept scrupulously clean." [61]

By 1901 the Commission was confident that the establishment of Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park would be completed soon. Seven construction jobs yet needed attention:

1 . The final improvement of Point Park on the summit of Lookout Mountain when the New York monument shall have been erected . . . .

2. The completion of the paving of gutters of the main roads of the Park where such work is needed for the permanent preservation of the roads. . . .

3. The completion of the fencing of the Park. . . .

4. The preparation and erection of tablets to preserve the history of Generals Hooker's and Longstreet's operations in Lookout Valley; the co-operative movements of General W.F. Smith at Brown's Ferry; the battle at Ringgold; the remaining Confederate Battery tablets for Missionary Ridge and those for Orchard Knob; a few for the approach leading from Reed's Bridge to Ringgold; a few from the Union engagement at the opening of the battle of September 19 on the Confederate left at Glass' Mill; those needed to cover the movements of Bragg's army after it had withdrawn from Chattanooga beyond Lee and Gordon's Mill, and established its headquarters at LaFayette until the opening of the battle of Chickamauga; and lastly those needed to indicate the establishment of the lines of the Union Army at Rossville during the night succeeding the second day's battle at Chickamauga. These positions will require in the aggregate from 85 to 100 historical tablets. A few more gun carriages will be needed for battery positions, the guns for which have been procured.

5. Considerable work remains in removing timber killed during the occupation of the Park by the troops during the War with Spain, and in the final leveling of sinks.

6. A bridge is now needed for the Lafayette road at Lee and Gordon's Mill.

7. There is considerable work remaining in the shape of conferences with State Commissions as to the exact locations of their monuments upon the Brigade lines which have all been ascertained. [62]

One of the cornerstones of the park was Orchard Knob, headquarters for Generals Grant, Thomas, and Granger during the battle of Chattanooga. In early 1901, the site was enclosed by a stone wall with decorative gates. The surrounding streets, now maintained by the federal government, were perfected and numerous state monuments erected within the reserve. [63] Also in 1901 additional land was purchased on Missionary Ridge at the left of the Union assault and an observation tower scheduled for erection there. Another tract of almost fifty acres (Sherman Reservation) was bought at the extreme north end of the ridge, and the Confederate batteries there restored and tablets erected on the site. Likewise, the location of General Bragg's headquarters was acquired and a steel observation tower put up to command a sweeping view of the entire park. [64]

Despite the optimism of the Commissioners for soon finishing the establishment, yearly appropriations continued. Between 1900 and 1903 over $240,000 was allotted the park. [65] Later appropriations were more specific; in 1906, for example, $4,500 was allocated "for a reinforced concrete bridge over Pea Vine Creek, Georgia, on the road from Reed's bridge to Ringgold. . . ," and in 1907 $5,000 was allocated "for a steel bridge over East Chickamauga Creek on the Ringgold road. . . ." [66]

Usually the park reported a deficiency of funds that required additional appropriations for adjustment. But work went forward rapidly and thirteen years after its creation, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park had made great strides. A recapitulation of development prepared in 1903 reported that the park then embraced 6,965 acres, contained 110 1/2 miles of roads (both "ordinary" and "improved"), and included six observation towers, 370 distance and locality tablets, 16 state monuments, 235 regimental monuments, 111 batteries mounted, 268 guns in batteries, 709 historical tablets, 432 state markers, and 23 shell markers. [67] Visitation to the park was constantly growing; in 1906 the Commission reported that an estimated 250,000 people had come to view the battlefields. [68]

One major construction project was the development of Point Park. Between 1904 and 1905 a monumental entrance and stone fence was erected there, consisting of "two battlemented observation towers 33 feet 8 inches high, connected by a cordeled and crenelated wall, to which is built the buttress portal, and containing an arch entrance 12 feet wide and 10 feet high to be used as a carriage entrance into the park." Total cost of the improvement was approximately $14,000. [69]

During the early years of the twentieth century a number of agreements were entered into between the park and local facilities. In 1906, the East Tennessee Telephone Company received a license to raise poles and wires through the park in return for free service at the Chattanooga Commissioner's office and at Fort Oglethorpe. (A similar agreement was executed in 1915 with the Cumberland Telephone and Telegraph Company.) [70] In 1910 the War Department issued a revocable license on request of two women, Mrs. Z.C. Patten and Mrs. D.P. Montague, for a tea house to be opened in the G.W. Kelley House on LaFayette Road in the park. Initially this facility was to be "a resting place for ladies visiting the park," but the "Chickamauga Park Rest House and Tea Room " evidently catered to both sexes. The establishment was operated by Lucy K. Powell. [71] The photographic concession set up on Lookout Mountain flourished and in 1914 a license was granted the Water Company of Chattanooga for laying pipe in the park. [72]

Preservation of the numerous park structures that had existed at the time of the battles became an ongoing concern for the Commission. In 1910 the commissioners directed Betts to "keep in repair, with like dimensions and material," all of the old structures, among them the Kelley House and barn, the Brotherton, Snodgrass, Vittetoe, and Cravens houses. [73] As was indicated in the rental of the Kelley House, the commission supported adaptive use of the historic structures.

Park maintenance also involved clearing away underbrush, mowing around monuments in the park and at the separate reservations, and cleaning up after storms damaged the area. In 1910 a wooden water tank, erected above Halls' Ford in 1898 to serve Camp George H. Thomas, was dismantled as a safety precaution. [74] Typical of such maintenance work was that reported by the Commission in 1915:

Considerable progress was made during the year in clearing the forests of underbrush, mowing the fields, and opening up the lines of battle in Chickamauga Park. This work has been pushed forward as rapidly as the allotment of funds for the purpose would permit. The opening up of the forests and the elimination of underbrush, weeds, and dense thickets is believed to be essential as a protection against forest fires.

Owing to the rapid growth of the city of Chattanooga the small reservations located in the Tennessee Division are taking on more and more the nature of city parks and the expense of maintaining them is steadily increasing. The total expenditure for field work during the year was $6,226.18. [75]

One project proposed by the Commission in 1915 called for the photographic recording of all monuments and markers in the park so that changes over time could be recognized. The Commissioners hoped that the results of the project would be compiled in book form "not only for reference but for the information of the Department and the public." [76] Another project concerned the erection of a "public comfort building" at Point Park on Lookout Mountain. [77] Such a facility was not to be built for many years, however, despite a heavy increase in visitation there that stood above 100,000 people by 1930. [78]

C. Land Acquisition

Between 1890 and 1933 matters of land acquisition persisted. Additions and adjustments to the original tract encompassing Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park were made often and were viewed as paramount to development. As previously indicated, the proposed park tract was reduced as a result of preliminary surveys. [79]

This property constituted only the Chickamauga Battlefield portion of the park, as well as some acreage along Missionary Ridge, although congressional appropriations later provided for purchase of an area on the north end of Lookout Mountain. By 1896 total park holdings stood at 5,568.25 acres out of the approximately 8,000 acres specified in the enabling act. Lookout Mountain Battlefield was added in 1897 at a cost of $22,065, while Point Park was not purchased until the following year for $35,000. [80] The latter tract included about sixteen and one-half acres and was acquired from the Lookout Mountain Company, a private enterprise. [81] Three acres purchased at the north end of Missionary Ridge virtually completed acquisition in the Tennessee portion of the park, although the 1899 widening of Crest Road along the ridge necessitated acquiring through donation several strips of property bordering privately-held tracts. [82] In addition, landowners in the Georgia division voluntarily ceded parts of their property along the Crest, Lafayette, and Ringgold roads to improve the right-of-way. [83]

Further additions to park holdings were completed through purchase or donation during the early 1900s. Small tracts acquired in this period, such as those at the junction of Jay's Mill Road and Reed's Bridge Road, improved the right-of-way and the park's maintenance capability. Some right-of-way deeds were negotiated so that new roads could be built, such as the Glass Mill Road between Crawfish Springs and Glass Mill on Chickamauga Creek. And in 1905 right-of-way between the park and Rossville, along Lafayette Road, was obtained. But many landholders adamantly opposed further concessions to the park. Wrote Boynton: "[They] appear to feel that they have the road which the Government has built and is maintaining, and they need not concern themselves further." [84] Furthermore, many landholders, cognizant of the use of the park for military maneuvers, raised prices for their property. In 1903, to forestall this trend, the War Department purchased a block of 793 acres at the north end of the park for $32,574. Primarily to be used for military purposes, the tract was also viewed as necessary for the establishment of the national military park. Fort Oglethorpe was built on a large section of this acreage. [85]

By 1908 total park acreage stood at 6,876.95. Total cost of the property acquired thus far was $314,990, with an average cost of $45.80 per acre. Appropriations continued. In fiscal 1909 more than $88,000 was advanced for purchasing several small tracts previously authorized, for road improvement, for fencing the south and east boundaries, and for repair of buildings damaged by a tornado in April, 1908. [86] Most remaining land problems lay in obtaining strips of property along Lafayette Road to complete a fifty-foot right-of-way for its length. Between 1913 and 1918 some 330 acres of this land came under Government control. [87]

A 1916 synopsis of park holdings appeared as follows:

This park is situated in Walker and Catoosa Counties, Ga., and in Hamilton County, Tenn., and contains an area of 6,541.64 acres, more or less. That part of the park located in the State of Georgia embraces the park proper, containing an area of approximately 5,562.78 acres, and Fort Oglethorpe, containing an area of 813.42 acres. The area in Tennessee is approximately 165.46 acres, and includes Lookout Mountain, containing about 102.56 acres; Orchard Knob, 7.37 acres; and the reservations on Missionary Ridge known as Bragg's Headquarters, about 2.5 acres; De Long's Place, 5.25 acres; Sherman Heights, 46 acres; the Ohio reservation, 1.74 acres; the site of the Phelps monument, and the site of the monument to the Nineteenth Illinois Regiment. [88]

Park acreage, exclusive of rights-of-way along entrance roads, remained fairly constant throughout the 1920s. Excluding the Fort Oglethorpe Reservation, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park ground embraced 5,733.11 acres as of 1926. [89] In 1930 a small addition was sought on the west slope of DeLong Point on Missionary Ridge, but owners were asking an excessive $5,000 for this land. [90] In 1932 civic-minded residents of Signal Mountain, Tennessee, donated approximately two acres to the Government for the purpose of establishing Signal Mountain Park some nine miles northwest of Chattanooga in the suburb of Waldens Ridge. This tract measured roughly 100 feet by 250 feet total area. [91] The Signal Mountain addition constituted the final acquisition under War Department administration. [92]

D. Boundaries

Early marking of the boundaries in the park fell to army survey parties who undertook the initial work in 1890 and 1891 under direct supervision of Commissioner Kellogg. In 1892 Betts resurveyed the proposed tract as land acquisition proceeded and made special note wherever inaccurate corner markers needed correction. [93] Marking of boundaries was a specific duty required of the War Department under terms of the enabling act once "perfect titles have been secured to the . . . lands and roads . . . . " [94]

By the 1895 formal dedication of the park, Henry V. Boynton described the legal boundaries thusly:

An east and west line, crossing the La Fayette Road at a point about 600 yards north of the Cloud House, and extending from the McFarland's Gap road to the Chickamauga River, forms the northern boundary. The Chickamauga River bounds it on the east, the road from Lee and Gordon's Mill to the Crawfish Springs road is its southern limit, and the Crawfish Springs road from the Lee and Gordon's Mill road to McFarland's Gap is its western boundary. . . . [95]

Periodically the park was resurveyed to check for encroachment of fences and other privately-owned appurtenances. [96] Disputes occasionally arose between park authorities and private landholders, as in 1912-14, when the Government sought to resolve an issue of relief to property owners whose walls encroached on the right-of-way along Crest Road on Missionary Ridge. Concerned landholders were allowed to apply for revocable permits to retain offending walls, although no new walls could be erected. [97]

E. Roads

Closely connected with land acquisition and the marking of boundaries in early park development was the construction and maintenance of its roads. The enabling legislation called for Government ownership of approaches from all directions upon cession by the States of Georgia and Tennessee. Most significant was the Crest Road along Missionary Ridge, which led through scenes of some of the most violent action around Chattanooga and was meaningful from both access and interpretive standpoints. Crest Road provided a panoramic view of Chattanooga, from its northern point south to Chickamauga Park. Three other important avenues into the park from the south were the old Georgia State Road (Lafayette Road), the Dry Valley and Crawfish Springs Road, and the Dry Valley Road. Still another approach was the road between Lookout Mountain and Rossville, over which General Hooker had passed during the Battle of Chattanooga. [98] Plans called for the construction of a "great Military Road," to embrace the existing Crest and Lafayette roads stretching from the north extremity of Missionary Ridge through Rossville Gap and south to Lee and Gordon's Mills below the park. Construction was underway by 1892.

There is not another road its equal in what it presents to visitors coming either for pleasure or historical study. Hardly twenty-five miles in length, it holds in its left hand the battlefield of Chickamauga in one state; in its right the battlefield of Missionary Ridge in another state; it connects the States of Georgia and Tennessee. [99]

Under direction of the Commission, particularly Alexander P. Stewart, the road construction proceeded. Stewart negotiated agreements for labor, equipment, and supplies, most of which were locally available. Atwell Thompson was engineer in charge of road construction. Their task was to reopen, restore, and, if necessary, reconstruct all roadways present at the time of the 1863 engagements. Some 300 members of the road work force employed under contract lived in shanties and cabins around the park. Between March and October, 1892, about six miles of sixteen-foot-wide gravel road and four miles of thirty-two-foot-wide macadam were graded and completed with drains and stone culverts where required. Some forty additional miles of road were planned for construction in accordance with the act establishing the park. [100] In 1893 work continued on the road from Rossville to Lookout Mountain and surveys were completed of the Crest Road preparatory to beginning construction there. The Lafayette Road running through the park was finished to Rossville and to a junction with a highway leading from Chattanooga, so by the end of the year approximately twenty-five miles of road construction was complete. [101] In 1894 sixteen additional miles of roadway were built. [102] Within five years, however, construction was geared to widening existing roads, a procedure necessitating acquisition of rights-of-way from numerous private landholders. Many affected citizens, notably those along the Crest and Lafayette roads, generously donated strips of their property. [103] Also, in 1898 and 1899 approval was granted the Chattanooga Rapid Transit Company to lay its tracks across the Dry Valley Road through Rossville Gap to the northern boundary of the park. [104]

Most of the park roads were finished before 1900, and in that year less than five miles were added. Total improved road distance in the park, to include approaches, was sixty-seven miles, with average cost at $2,902.92 per mile. [105] During the next year the Lafayette Road was extended to reach the corporate limits of the town of Lafayette below the park. Improvements were needed for the roads from Rossville to McFarland's Gap, from Ringgold to Ringgold Gap, and from Crawfish Spring to Glass's Mill. "Their construction will finish the road building of the Park," reported Boynton. [106] He adeptly described the completed roadwork in the park, placing it in the context of its historical setting:

The central driveway of the park, which passes through or overlooks six of the seven battlefields embraced in the park project, is, by the finishing of the Lafayette road extension, now complete. It is 30 miles long and reaches from General Sherman's battlefield at the north end of Missionary Ridge, along the 8 miles of General Bragg's line of battle on that ridge, through the center of the Chickamauga field, and the 13 miles beyond it over the theater of General Bragg's movements between his withdrawal from Chattanooga and his subsequent movements previous to the battle of Chickamauga. Another driveway has been completed, constructed like the central one, on a 50-foot right of way. It leaves the former at the Chickamauga field and extends 9 miles to the Ringgold field, the final battle of the Union campaign for Chattanooga. [107]

Also during 1901 a number of permanent trails were established on Lookout Mountain. These were built four feet wide with low grade and steps where necessary. Resting areas were constructed along the paths. [108]

With increased visitation after 1900, road maintenance in the park became of utmost importance and annual appropriations reflected this need. That of 1903 allotted funds to improve a road running twelve miles from Crawfish Springs to Stevens Gap. And the advent of military maneuvers required continued maintenance of both macadamized and gravel roads. Moreover, the local population was rapidly increasing, causing further upsurge in road use in and around the park. "These roads," wrote Commission Chairman Carmen, "are the great thoroughfares from Chattanooga to Northwestern Georgia." [109] In 1905, Carmen advised the War Department that funds were needed to complete on-going stone guttering on principal park thoroughfares at a cost of $950 per mile. When fully completed, this measure was expected to reduce overall future road maintenance cost. [110] Another economy measure was the Commission's decision not to build a road from Lookout Creek across Lookout Mountain to Rossville, although such construction had been provided for in the 1890 act establishing the park. [111] Instead, Chairman Carman urged that funds be appropriated to replace a dilapidated wooden bridge with a concrete one over Pea Vine Creek, on the road between Reed"s Bridge and Ringgold, and to similarly replace the Alexander Bridge over Chickamauga Creek. Another bridge, this one of steel, was required on Lafayette Road at Lee and Gordon's Mill. When these were built, the bridge system of the park would be complete. [112]

During subsequent years funds were expended on shortened segments of the approaches deemed necessary by the Commission. In 1908, 1909, and 1910 work was completed on a brief length of road between St. Elmo, near the foot of Lookout Mountain, and Rossville, and on a loop around the Sherman Reservation on Crest Road. [113] The requisite bridges were also completed in 1910, and a contract was awarded for another over Chattanooga Creek. [114] Construction proceeded on about five miles of road between Stevens Gap and Crawfish Springs, called the McLemore Cove Road, while many of the gravel roads now becoming worn because of increased traffic had to be resurfaced. [115] Along Crest Road encroachment became a problem as landholders abutting on the Government property either intentionally or not appropriated parts of the fifty-foot-wide right-of-way for building sidewalks. The Commission promptly posted notices against trespass on the property, but eventually the sidewalks were permitted if built under the supervision of the park engineer. [116] In 1912 experiments in oiling road surfaces to keep down the dust began. Further funds were allocated for finishing the McLemore Cove Road, and the Commission turned down a request by Hamilton County, Tennessee, to annex a newly completed boulevard leading into Chattanooga. [117]

In 1915 Commission Chairman Charles H. Grosvenor summed up the past year's road and bridge maintenance in the park thusly:

There are 102.14 miles of improved roads in the park system, 96.33 miles of which were repaired during the year, at a cost of $22,222.54. This expenditure includes the cost of material, the hire of labor, and all expenses incident to the hauling and spreading of 16,826 cubic yards of gravel and the cleaning of 286,324 linear feet of ditches. It also includes the repair of bridges and the cost of resurfacing 25.98 miles of roads. The total average cost of maintenance during the year was $230.69 per mile, while the average cost of resurfacing amounted to $255.86 per mile. The average cost of maintenance, less the cost of resurfacing amounted to $255.86 per mile. The average cost of maintenance, less the cost of resurfacing and repair of bridges, was $152.40 per mile. The expenditure for the repair and general maintenance of bridges amounted to $893.05. [118]

This was a typical assessment for roadwork during the period preceding World War I. In the autumn of 1916, however, floods struck the area causing destruction of the approaches to the Alexander and Davis bridges and inundating a two-mile length of the road leading from Lookout Mountain. That damage, plus increased travel in the park brought on by the erection of military cantonments there, produced unforeseen maintenance expenses so that the average cost per mile stood at $276.70.[119] So great was the wear by 1918 that the quartermaster of Camp Forrest, established in the park, had to restore those leading to the principal cantonments using tarvia, macadam, and concrete. [120] A new bridge was shortly erected on the Lafayette Road near Rock Springs, Georgia, [121] and in 1921 the War Department approved examination of Crest Road, looking to its more permanent restoration. The old gravel and dirt surface by this time was rapidly succumbing to ravages brought on by increased automobile traffic. [122] During 1921 the sum of $8,000 was appropriated for restoring Bonds' Bridge on the McLemore Cove Road which had collapsed the previous year. The Converse Bridge and Steel Company of Chattanooga received the contract for doing this work. [123]

In 1925 a significant measure passed Congress authorizing the Secretary of War "to convey to the States in which located Government owned or controlled approach roads to national cemeteries and national military parks. . . ." [124] At Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park the roads' maintenance situation had grown increasingly burdensome because the approaches had become "more important as general highways than as approaches to the park. . . . " [125] The change in jurisdiction, however, was contingent on state, county, or city agreement to accept and maintain any such transferred roads. [126] In 1928 and 1929, in accordance with this legislation, Congress appropriated $370,500 for paving the Dry Valley, Ringgold, and Lafayette Extension roads, to place them in such condition as to induce the State of Georgia to accept their return. [127] Georgia soon after took over the Dry Valley Road, but could not financially afford to meet terms of the federal legislation regarding the others. A similar arrangement was reached with Tennessee, and in 1929 that state assumed ownership of Hooker Road leading from Lookout Mountain towards the park. [128] Two years later, action was taken concerning Crest Road along Missionary Ridge, turning it and its subsidiary roads over to local interests. In addition, all approaches south of the park, including McLemore Cove Road, Lee and Gordon's Mill Road, Glass Mill Road, and an extension of Lafayette Road, were decreed "no longer useful . . . as historical features of the park" and slated for future transfer to Georgia. In 1932 the Stevens Gap Road was added to this list. [129]

Maintenance of these latter roads continued as a War Department responsibility until their ultimate disposition could be made. Within the park, road care and repair proceeded as usual. In 1931 plans were prepared for concreting all primary roads. These consisted of Lafayette Road, Mullis-McFarland Gap Road, Ringgold Road, Glenn-Kelly Road, and Vittetoe-Chickamauga Road. Secondary routes, such as Mullis and Snodgrass-Savannah roads, were to be oiled, while those less traveled would be retained with gravel surfaces. [130] In 1932 the Lafayette Extension Road was turned over to Georgia, and the Missionary Ridge roads to Tennessee, leaving the federal government in control of 72.43 miles of roadway in the park. [131] Only the Ringgold Road of those initially proposed for transfer had not been taken over by Georgia, and during 1932 local residents petitioned park authorities to oil this approach road. "The dust is so bad in dry weather that it makes living along the roads very disagreeable." [132] Superintendent Randolph agreed with the complaints, pointing out to army officials that the gravel road was "subjected to very heavy travel by trucks, busses, automobiles and horse-drawn transportation. The road is also extensively used by the troops at Fort Oglethorpe. . ." Randolph urged that the approach be returned to Georgia soon "to relieve the Government of further responsibility and expense in connection with its upkeep." [133] The War Department agreed to recommend to Congress an extension of the Ringgold Road appropriation of $117,000, which had previously reverted to the Treasury after Georgia had failed to match the sum for improving the road. [134] Finally, in 1934, after the park's transfer to the Department of the Interior, Ringgold Road was delivered over to the ownership and maintenance of Catoosa County, Georgia. [135]

F. Reforestation, Livestock Control, and Protection

Among other concerns of park personnel during the years of War Department stewardship were those of reforestation, livestock control, and law enforcement. In the early 1900s much labor was expended on restoring the forests at Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park to their 1863 appearance, no small task because numerous tracts had been cleared for fields since the battles. One of the first areas to be reforested was that around Jay's Mill, part of which was then being used as a garden by a park employee. The park received hundreds of small trees from the National Botanical Garden in Washington, D.C. [136] Further assistance came with visits by Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson and William R. Smith, Superintendent of the National Botanical Garden. The Secretary made recommendations on grasses for the park and later forwarded large quantities of seed while Superintendent Smith promised help in establishing an embryo forest growth on the cleared fields. [137] Soon after, two nurseries were located, one "at the Peters place," and the other "at the old Dyer garden at park headquarters." Forest tree seeds and seedlings were also planted at Sherman Reservation and elsewhere. General Boynton soon reported that "the grasses . . . are flourishing in all portions of the park, and the young trees and tree seeds . . . [provide] an excellent foundation for the restoration of forest on all fields which have been cleared since the battle." [138] In 1904 Boynton noted that the grass was in "luxuriant growth," and that the park had become an excellent pasture, in part due to the sowing of grass and clover seed for cavalry and artillery livestock present at the mobilization camp during the Spanish-American War. By this time, too, transplanting of nursery seedlings had begun in the reforestation program, so that in 1906 only 100 acres remained to be restored. [139]

The development of an "excellent pasture" posed problems for controlling trespassing livestock. In 1901 the Commission adopted regulations seeking to prevent hogs, sheep, goats, cattle, and horses from roaming on park lands and, where damage to property occurred, making the owners liable for the losses. [140] Henceforth notices were to be posted and all stock cleared in three drivings per week by mounted park guardians. The enforcement actions outraged many owners adjacent to the park who had used the land as a stock range for years. [141] In any event, prosecution of offending stock owners was an expensive and complicated procedure because of the local absence of federal law officers. As a final solution, the Commissioners decided to fence the entire park, a measure inaugurated in 1900 and 1901 after nearly 4000 animals were driven at intervals from park premises. But fencing did little to solve the problem, and livestock continued to force its way into the pasture. Hogs were particularly destructive to the turf and even managed to uproot some interpretive tablets. [142]

There was little improvement in ensuing years. In 1906 Engineer Betts reported great trouble with trespassing stock. "Parties have driven large herds of cattle into the Park and have turned them loose, and they roam at large and enter every vacant building or inclosure. Quite a number of them are dying and we have to bury or cremate them." [143] In 1908 and 1909 fencing was completed along the park's eastern and southern boundaries, [144] but it apparently did little good. The entire matter of stock control befuddled park authorities and the problem dragged on for years. One suggestion was made to impound the offending beasts, but this evidently never occurred, probably because of its anticipated expense. On several occasions the Commission sent names of owners of trespassing livestock to the United States attorney in Atlanta, but without result. [145] And despite attempts by the Department of Agriculture to stem a cattle tick epidemic in the vicinity in 1913, little was done "in the abatement of this nuisance" of livestock trespassing. [146] In 1914 the War Department published regulations prohibiting the grazing of livestock in national military parks unless approved by the Secretary, and soon after officials at Chickamauga and Chattanooga agreed to lease nonhistoric property in the park for grazing purposes at fifty cents per acre. [147] Yet illegal use of the grounds remained a vexing issue for several more years until a combination of procedures involving fencing, impounding, and leasing eventually took effect. [148]

Protection of park land and resources has been a continuous concern for park authorities since 1890. In 1891 it was noted that relic hunters hunters had destroyed many trees of the reserve in order to obtain bullets and shot from the battle, but that the desecration had substantially ended. In the following year laws were enacted protecting the land and resources from willful destruction, mutilation, or injury, and removal of monuments, battle relics, or foliage, under threat of prosecution and fine. The lands comprising the park were posted, especially along the entrance roads. [149] In 1897 the earlier protection act was toughened by passage of a measure specifically tailored for Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. The new law forbade injury to any marker, statue, monument, tree, or shrub, and also outlawed hunting and shooting on park land, with offenders liable for fines. The superintendent was empowered to arrest persons violating the laws and take them before any United States commissioner or circuit judge. Moreover, persons whose leases expired and resisted Government demands for the property were subject to be charged with trespass and fined accordingly. [150]

Park protection entailed many things. Applications for right-of-way of private enterprises through park land had to be considered in light of potential danger to the historic tract. Thus, in 1898 the Chattanooga Rapid Transit Company sought and received permission to lay tracks across part of the park in compliance with restrictions imposed by the Government. [151] More often, however law enforcement efforts centered around destruction or theft of park property. Vandalism and thievery became expensive problems for horses were stolen from the park corral, and in September unknown parties painted the rocks in Point Park with gospel texts. The Commission directed Engineer Betts to try to apprehend the culprits. [152] One night the following summer eleven bronze mountain howitzers, each weighing 220 pounds, were stolen from a stack of guns behind park headquarters. Three men were shortly arrested for the crime and later were convicted, while two Chattanooga junk dealers were eventually charged with accepting and disposing of the armament. [153] Still other law enforcement matters concerned the shooting of livestock on park land by soldiers in 1902, speeding automobiles on the reserve in 1906, and a white slavery episode in 1912 involving bringing women and girls from Chattanooga "across the State line into the Park for immoral purposes." [154] In 1922 vandals entered the Bragg Reservation and damaged the Illinois monument. [155] During the 1920s bootlegging and public drunkenness became a problem, causing some people to feel that the park staff was incapable of exercising sufficient control. This was partly alleviated with the cession in 1929 of police jurisdiction over approach roads to the Government, and in 1930 a recommendation was made to Congress to provide for permanent police protection at the park. [156] Two years later funding was made available for employing policemen and buying motorcycles for the park. In 1933 Congress finally enacted legislation to improve the protection of the national military parks. [157]

G. Lookout Mountain

For much of the early history of the park Lookout Mountain was considered a detached entity, administratively as well as physically. Originally the area composing Point Park had been privately owned, and attempts by the owners to fence the point and charge admission antagonized visitors and instigated legal proceedings. Eventually the point was closed, but on the tract directly below a large hotel opened and an incline railway was operating in 1887. By 1895 the owners of the point began running another incline which ascended the 1500-foot distance to the point in only a mile. But area residents soon tired of the competition and advocated Government acquisition of the tract for inclusion in Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. Under the leadership of Adolph Ochs, former Chattanoogan and then publisher of the New York Times, and Alexander W. Chambliss, a local attorney, the transfer of the property to the Federal Government was completed on August 23, 1898. Eight months later Tennessee ceded jurisdiction over the land to the United States. [158]

The first concessioner on Lookout Mountain was J.H. Gaston, who obtained a revocable license to operate a photograph gallery in Point Park in 1899. Gaston in 1901 turned the business over to George T. Linn and William A. Rollins, who in 1905 renewed the license for "the exclusive right to make photographs of persons for profit. . . ." Rollins later withdrew from the business. [159] Meantime, development of the point progressed with the beginning of construction of a wall at its southern boundary, placement of gun carriages and guns in the old earthworks, and completion of roads and trails on the Cravens House terrace below the point. As of 1901 nine state monuments had been erected on the lower site and work had commenced on an imposing monument for the State of New York. Bronze historical tablets were also finished and installed, and Confederate field batteries emplaced on both tracts. [160] The stone wall and entrance designed by Engineer Betts in the shape of the United States Army Engineer Corps insignia was nearly finished by 1905, although a wall along the east bluff and a circle drive with paved gutters was still needed. [161] Improvements came slowly, bringing complaints from citizens who wanted a caretaker's lodge, pavilions, benches, and guide service at Point Park. Congress in 1913 responded with legislation providing for the lodge, [162] although its construction was delayed for years. [163]

The Lookout Mountain portion of Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park was enhanced during the 1920s and 1930s by local enterprise in developing Chattanooga-Lookout Mountain Park. A corporation inspired and financially aided by Adolph Ochs succeeded in acquiring land on the east and west slopes of the mountain and the park was chartered in 1926. One of Ochs's objectives was to restore vegetation and to beautify the area with hanging gardens and develop its natural attributes. Ochs personally contributed a large stipend; he also loaned $150,000 to reconstruct the highway up the mountain. His brother, Milton, directed the project. Public-spirited citizens were encouraged to subscribe to the work, and the Tennessee legislature gave it tax-exempt status. Local hiking clubs were organized and numerous trails for walking and nature study activities were laid out. [164] Complementing this project was the establishment of Civilian Conservation Camps on Lookout Mountain in the early 1930s. Workmen from those camps assisted in the construction of trails as well as roads, and specific hiking paths laid out by the CCC included Skyuka Trail, Fire Trail, East and West Bluff Trails, Whiteside Trail, Guild Trail, Hardy Trail, Rifle Pit Trail, Gum Spring Trail, Shingle Trail, and Glen Trail. [165] Adolph Ochs died before his envisioned park was completed. On June 22, 1935, the tract comprising Chattanooga-Lookout Mountain Park--some 2,700 acres--was donated as a gift to the Federal Government as an addition to Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. [166]