Effigy Mounds Figures on the Landscape Historic Resource Study

¹ Recent geophysical studies, such as Antone Mathys' "A Geophysical Survey at the Turkey River Mound Group Site, Clayton County, Iowa, for the Iowa State Archaeology Office State Burial Program, Iowa City, Iowa", Reports of Investigation 422 (Institute for Minnesota Archaeology, 1997), and work by Grant Goltz have successfully identified surviving subsurface mound remnants.

² Samuel Calvin quoted in R. Clark Mallam, The Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation: An Interpretive Model, Office of the State Archeologist Report No. 9 (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1976), 16.

³ Jean C. Prior, Landforms of Iowa (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991), 31, 93; United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Survey of Allamakee County, Iowa, Part 1 (Washington, D.C.: Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1998), 3.

⁴ Prior, Landforms of Iowa, 85-91.

⁵ Chumbley, C.A., R.G. Baker, and E.A. Bettis III, "Midwestern Holocene Paleoenvironments Revealed by Floodplain Deposits in Northeastern Iowa," Science 249 (1990): 272-274.

⁶ Ibid., 272-274.

⁷ James J. Dinsmore, A Country So Full of Game: The Story of Wildlife in Iowa (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1994), 179-183.

⁸ Ibid., 90-99.

⁹ Ibid., 182.

¹⁰ Ibid., 168-177; James J. Dinsmore, Thomas H. Kent, Darwin Koenig, Peter C. Petersen, and Dean M. Roosa, Iowa Birds (Ames: The Iowa State University Press, 1984), 21; United States Geological Survey, Zebra Mussel Information, accessed at http://nas.er.usgs.gov/zebra.mussel, on February 19, 2003.

¹¹ Dennis Lenzendorf, Ecology of Effigy Mounds National Monument (Report on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, n.d.); Rodney Rovang, "Effigy Mounds National Monument Plant List" (Report on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, n.d.).

¹² Mallam, The Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 19.

¹³ Fred J. Fagergren, Wild Plants: Their Uses By Early Man (Unpublished manuscript on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, n.d.).

¹⁴ C.A. White, "Prairie Fires," American Naturalist (1871).

¹⁵ Kenneth F. Higgins, Interpretation and Compendium of Historical Fire Accounts in the Northern Great Plains, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Resource Publication 161 (1986), 7-8; Gerard W. Williams, "References on the American Indian Use of Fire in Ecosystems" (2000), http://fs.jorge.com/archives/Reference/Biblio_IndianUseofFire.htm, accessed on June 6, 2003.

¹⁶ Douglas B. Bamforth, "High-Tech Foragers? Folsom and Later Paleoindian Technology on the Great Plains," Journal of World Prehistory 16:1 (2002): 55-98

¹⁷ Lynn M. Alex, Iowa's Archaeological Past (Iowa City: Iowa Press, 2000), 37-45; Joe B. Thompson, "Prehistoric Archeology in Northeastern Iowa," Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society 49 (2002): 32.

¹⁸ Elizabeth D. Benchley, Blane Nansel, Clark A. Dobbs, Susan M. Thurston Myster, and Barbara H. O'Connell, Archeology and Bioarcheology of the Northern Woodlands: A Volume in the Central and Northern Plains Archeological Overview, Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 52 (1997), 72; Ellison Orr, "Laurentian or 'Old Red Copper'," (Unpublished manuscript on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument), 1-2; John C. Whittaker and Anthony D. Romano, "Some Prehistoric Copper Flaking Tools in Minnesota," The Wisconsin Archeologist 77:1 (1966): 3-10; Jack Steinbring and Ron Sanders, "Comments on Some Archaic Copper Artifacts From Wapaca County," The Wisconsin Archeologist 77:2 (1996): 83-86; Susan R. Martin, Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999).

¹⁹ James B. Stoltman, "The Archaic Tradition," The Wisconsin Archeologist 78:1-2 (1997): 112-139; James B. Griffin, "The Midlands," in Ancient North Americans, ed. J.D. Jennings (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1978), 242-299.

²⁰ Stoltman, "The Archaic Tradition."

²¹ Alex, Iowa's Archaeological Past, 79; David F. Overstreet, Larry Doebert, Gary W. Henschel, Phil Sander, and David Wasion, "Two Red Ocher Mortuary Contexts From Southeastern Wisconsin—the Henschel Site (47SB29), Sheboygan County and the Barnes Creek Site (47KN41), Kenosha County," The Wisconsin Archeologist 77:1 (1996): 36-62; Jennifer R. Hass, "Human Skeletal Remains from Two Red Ocher Mortuary Contexts in Southeastern Wisconsin," The Wisconsin Archeologist 77:1 (1996): 63-72; Benchley et al., Archeology and Bioarcheology of the Northern Woodlands, 75.

²² Paul L. Beaubien, "Archaeological Investigation of the Sny-Magill Mound Group, 1952," Memorandum dated March 16, 1953 to the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument.

²³ Benchley et al., Archeology and Bioarcheology of the Northern Woodlands, 87.

²⁴ James B. Stoltman and George W. Christiansen, "The Late Woodland Stage in the Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley," In Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation Across the Midcontinent, ed. Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, and Andrew C. Fortier (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), 501.

²⁵ Beaubien, "Archaeological Investigation of the Sny-Magill Mound Group, 1952." A half-century later, Beaubien's assessment of Sny-Magill's significance appears to remain unchallenged by more recent studies.

²⁶ Wilfred D. Logan, Woodland Complexes in Northeastern Iowa (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1976), 11.

²⁷ Beaubien, "Archaeological Investigation of the Sny-Magill Mound Group, 1952."

²⁸ Katherine P. Stevenson, Robert F. Boszhardt, Charles R. Moffat, Philip H. Salkin, Thomas C. Pleger, James L. Theler, and Constance M. Arzigian, "The Woodland Tradition," The Wisconsin Archeologist 78:1-2 (1997): 140-201; Logan, Woodland Complexes in Northeastern Iowa, 145.

²⁹ Alex, Iowa's Archaeological Past, 100; William Green, "Native Peoples in the Study Region: Culture History," in Effigy Mounds National Monument Cultural Affiliation Report, Volume 1, Research Papers 26:3, prepared for the National Park Service, Midwest Support Office (Iowa City: University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist and American Indian Native Studies Program, 2001), 40.

³⁰ Dennis Lenzendorf, Effigy Mounds: A Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument (Fort Washington, Penn.: Eastern National, 2000), 16-21; Jill York O'Bright, The Perpetual March: An Administrative History of Effigy Mounds National Monument (Omaha: National Park Service, 1989), 5-6.

³¹ Stevenson et al., "The Woodland Tradition," 171.

³² Stoltman and Christiansen, "The Late Woodland Stage in the Driftless Area of the Upper Mississippi Valley," 501.

³³ R. Clark Mallam, The Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation; Stevenson et al., "The Woodland Tradition," 171-172.

³⁴ Kenneth L. Kvamme, "Archeo-Geophysical Survey at Effigy Mounds National Monument," Final report submitted to Midwest Archeological Center, National Park Service, 1999, 14-18.

³⁵ Larry J. Zimmerman, Dawn Makes Strong Move, and Dawn Sly-Terpstra, "Appendix B: Consultation with American Indians and Other Members of Traditionally Associated Groups" in Effigy Mounds National Monument Cultural Affiliation Report, Volume 1, Research Papers Vol. 26:3, prepared for the National Park Service, Midwest Support Office (Iowa City: University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist and American Indian Native Studies Program, 2001), 277-288.

³⁶ R. Clark Mallam, and James E. Mount, "When on High: An Aerial Perspective of Effigy Mounds," Journal of the Iowa Archaeological Society 27 (1980): 129.

³⁷ Mallam, The Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 39-40.

³⁸ Dale R. Henning, "Oneota Evolution and Interactions: A Perspective from the Weaver Terrace, Southeast Iowa," in Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, Report No. 20, ed. William Green (Iowa City: University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist, 1995), 83; David W. Benn, "Woodland People and the Roots of the Oneota," in Oneota Archaeology: Past, Present, and Future, Report No. 20, ed. William Green (Iowa City: University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist, 1995), 91; Green, "Native Peoples in the Study Region: Culture History," 42.

³⁹ Jacques Marquette, quoted in Ellery M. Hancock, Past and Present of Allamakee County, Iowa, Vol. 1 (Chicago: S.J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1913), 12.

⁴⁰ Bruce E. Mahan, Old Fort Crawford and the Frontier (Iowa City: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1926), 5; Federal Writers' Project, Wisconsin: A Guide to the Badger State (Madison: Wisconsin Library Association, 1941), 186; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 13.

⁴¹ Alex, Iowa's Archaeological Past, 219; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 13; Mahan, Fort Crawford, 6-7; Federal Writers' Project, Wisconsin, 186-187; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 15, 57; Nicholas Perrot, "Memoir on the Manners, Customs, and Religion of the Savages of North America," in The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes as described by Nicolas Perrot, 2 vols., ed. Emma Helen Blair (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1912).

⁴² Blair, The Indian Tribes, 2:216fn; "Trade Goods: Biographies and Histories of Traders, Merchants, Chiefs, Officers, Voyageurs," http://www.usinternet.com/users/dfnels/marin-zip.htm.

⁴³ D.W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History — Volume 1: Atlantic America, 1492-1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 267-280; White, The Middle Ground, 248-268.

⁴⁴ Mahan, Old Fort Crawford, 1.

⁴⁵ Jonathan Carver, Travels through the Interior Parts of North America, 3rd ed. (reprint edition, Minneapolis: Ross & Haines, Inc., 1956), 50.

⁴⁶ Ibid., 51.

⁴⁷ D.W. Meing, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History — Volume 2: Continental America, 1800-1867 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 4-23; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 189-190; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 33.

⁴⁸ Federal Writers' Project, Wisconsin, 441.

⁴⁹ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 17; Hancock, Past and Present of Allamakee County, 17; A.R. Fulton, The Red Men of Iowa (Des Moines: Mills & Company, 1882), 405-407. According to Fulton, Giard occupied his grant throughout the time that the country passed from Spain to France, and from France to the United States. In 1844, in consideration of this occupancy, the United States issued a patent for the land to Giard. His heirs subsequently sold the entire tract for $300. The present city of McGregor is situated on the "Giard Tract."

⁵⁰ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 39-40.

⁵¹ Mahan, Old Fort Crawford, 18-19.

⁵² Hancock, Past and Present of Allamakee County, 18.

⁵³ Zebulon M. Pike, quoted in Hancock, Past and Present of Allamakee County, 19.

⁵⁴ Mahan, Old Fort Crawford, 52.

⁵⁵ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 190-191; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 33-34; Mahan, Old Fort Crawford, 53- 57; William J. Burke, The Upper Mississippi Valley: How the Landscape Shaped Our Heritage (Waukon, Iowa: Mississippi Valley Press, 2000), 121.

⁵⁶ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 40.

⁵⁷ Meinig, Continental America, 92-103.

⁵⁸ Mahan, Old Fort Crawford, 71.

⁵⁹ Burke, Upper Mississippi Valley, 121-122.

⁶⁰ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 190; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 34-35; W. E. Alexander, History of Winneshiek and Allamakee County, Iowa, 1882 (Sioux City, Iowa: Western Publishing Co., 1882), 362; Burke, Upper Mississippi Valley, 121-122.

⁶¹ Jacob A. Swisher, Iowa: Land of Many Mills (Iowa City: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1940), 41-42.

⁶² Jefferson Davis to George W. Jones, quoted in ibid.; Leah D. Rogers and Robert C. Vogel, "Allamakee County, Iowa, Historic Archeology Overview" (Report prepared for the Allamakee Historic Preservation Commission by Bear Creek Archeology, Inc., 1989), 48; Burke, Upper Mississippi Valley, 122.

⁶³ Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 367.

⁶⁴ "The Old Mission on Yellow River," Park History Files, Effigy Mounds National Monument, 4.

⁶⁵ The Danley Mill was located outside the present National Monument boundaries. Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 360-363; R. Clark Mallam, "A Cultural Resources Survey of the Ferguson Tract, Allamakee County, Iowa, for the Midwest Archeological Center" (Decorah, Iowa: Luther College Archaeological Research Center, August 13, 1976), 21; Rogers and Vogel, "Allamakee County, Iowa, Historic Archeology Overview," 48-49.

⁶⁶ Burke, Upper Mississippi Valley, 134; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 28, 192.

⁶⁷ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 28, 192; Burke, Upper Mississippi Valley, 138.

⁶⁸ List of Classified Structures, Effigy Mounds National Monument, March 13, 1996.

⁶⁹ Brenda W. Williams and Dena L. Sanford, "Old Military Road," Determination of Eligibility, February 12, 1996; Lowell J. Soike to Dena L. Sanford (7 June 1996), letter on file at State Historical Society of Iowa, Iowa City.

⁷⁰ William Green, "History of Effigy Mounds Research: A Regional Overview," in Effigy Mounds National Monument Cultural Affiliation Report, Volume 1, Research Papers 26:3, prepared for the National Park Service, Midwest Support Office (Iowa City: University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist and American Indian Native Studies Program, 2001), 68; Robert A. Birmingham and Leslie E. Eisenberg, Indian Mounds of Wisconsin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000), 15; Increase A. Lapham, The antiquities of Wisconsin: as surveyed and described, Smithsonian Institution Publication 70, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. 7, art. 4 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1855).

⁷¹ Caleb Atwater, Description of antiquities discovered in the State of Ohio and other Western States, reprint ed. (Cambridge: AMS Press for Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 1973); Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 40-41.

⁷² Josiah Priest, American Antiquities, and Discoveries in the West: being an exhibition of the evidence that an ancient population of partially civilized nations, differing entirely from those of the present Indians, peopled America many centuries before its discovery by Columbus. And inquiries into their origin, with a copious description of many of their stupendous works, now in ruins. With conjectures concerning what may have become of them. Comp. from travels, authentic sources, and the researches of antiquarian societies (Albany: Hoffman & White, 1834); William Pidgeon, Traditions of De-Coo-Dah And antiquarian researches: comprising extensive explorations, surveys, and excavations of the wonderful and mysterious earthen remains of the mound-builders in America; the traditions of the last prophet of the Elk nation relative to their origin and use; and the evidences of an ancient population more numerous than the present aborigines (New York: H. Thayer, 1858); Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 22.

⁷³ Richard Taylor, "Notes Respecting Certain Indian Mounds and Earthworks, in the Form of Animal Effigies, Chiefly in the Wisconsin Terr., United States," American Journal of Science and Arts 34:1 (July 1838): 88-104.

⁷⁴ Taylor, "Notes Respecting;" Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 44.

⁷⁵ Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley: Comprising the Results of Extensive Original Surveys and Explorations (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Series "Contributions to Knowledge," 1848); Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 42-44.

⁷⁶ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 40-41.

⁷⁷ Fred A. Finney, "An Introduction to the Northwestern Archaeological Survey by Theodore Lewis," The Minnesota Archaeologist 60 (2000): 13-29; Cherie E. Haury, "Theodore Hayes Lewis: The Northwestern Archaeological Survey in Iowa," Journal of the Iowa Archaeological Society 40 (1993): 82-87; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 41-42; Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 24-25; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 52-56. Lewis' original field notes are archived at the Minnesota Historical Society.

⁷⁸ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 54-55.

⁷⁹ Cyrus Thomas, quoted in Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 58-59.

⁸⁰ Cyrus Thomas, "Report on Mound Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology," in Twelfth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890-1891, ed. John W. Powell (Washington, DC: Bureau of American Ethnology, 1894).

⁸¹ Cyrus Thomas, quoted in Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 22-23.

⁸² Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 57-58.

⁸³ Frederick Starr, "Summary of the Archeology of Iowa," Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, 6 (1897): 53-124.

⁸⁴ Chief Waukon, 1844, quoted in Hancock, Past and Present of Allamakee County, Iowa.

⁸⁵ Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 355-356; Larry J. Zimmerman, "Tribal Culture Histories," in Effigy Mounds National Monument Cultural Affiliation Report. Volume 1, Research Papers 26:3, prepared for the National Park Service, Midwest Support Office (Iowa City: University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist and American Indian Native Studies Program, 2001), 49.

⁸⁶ Hancock, Allamakee County, 27-28. Enthnohistorical data on the various tribes occupying the region may be found in studies submitted as expert testimony to the Indians Claims Commission. These have been compiled and published by Garland Publishing Company under the editorial supervision of David Agee Horr. Relevant volumes include: David Agee Horr, Sac, Fox, and Iowa Indians, 3 vols. (New York: Garland Publishing Co., 1974); David Agee Horr, Winnebago Indians (New York: Garland Publishing Co., 1974); David Agee Horr, Sioux Indians , 4 vols. (New York: Garland Publishing Co., 1974); and David Agee Horr, Indians of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Southern Michigan, and Southern Wisconsin, 3 vols. (New York: Garland Publishing Co., 1974).

⁸⁷ John K. Mahon, "Indian-United States Military Situation, 1775-1848", In History of Indian-White Relations, Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 4, ed. Wilcomb E. Washburn (Smithsonian Institution, 1988), 158.

⁸⁸ Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 356; Hancock, Allamakee County, 30; Zimmerman, "Tribal Culture Histories," 55.

⁸⁹ Zimmerman, "Tribal Culture Histories," 54.

⁹⁰ Lincoln was elected captain of the New Salem militia company, but saw no action during the conflict.

⁹¹ Mahon, "Indian-United States Military Situation, 1775-1848", 159; Ellen M. Whitney, ed., The Black Hawk War, 1831-1832, 3 vols. (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1970); Roger L. Nichols, Black Hawk and the Warrior's Path (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1992).

⁹² Zimmerman, "Tribal Culture Histories," 54; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 191; Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 362.

⁹³ Zimmerman, "Tribal Culture Histories," 55.

⁹⁴ Hancock, Allamakee County, 33; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 37.

⁹⁵ Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 356; Hancock, Allamakee County, 34. Note that the Minnesota River was historically referred to as the St. Peter's River.

⁹⁶ Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 362-368; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 30.

⁹⁷ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 32-36.

⁹⁸ Parker quoted in Burke, Upper Mississippi Valley, 199; Alexander, History of Allamakee County, 360-363; Mallam, "Survey of the Ferguson Tract," 21. None of the three 1849 houses were located within the boundaries of the Monument.

⁹⁹ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 47-48.

¹⁰⁰ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 48-49; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 36-37.

¹⁰¹ Swisher, Land of Mills, 88-89; Burke, Upper Mississippi Valley, 124; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 38.

¹⁰² Colin Betts, "Red House Landing: An Historical Overview," report on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, n.d., 4.

¹⁰³ In 1996, Brenda Williams completed a Determination of Eligibility for York's Landing, a steamboat landing located in the North Unit of the monument. In her investigations, Williams identified the ruins of two structures at York's Landing: a stone foundation and a stone cellar built into the hill. According to the Determination of Eligibility, the foundation for York's house was gone by 1925 or 1926, and the area was used for a stone quarry. Williams determined the site to be ineligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Later that year, the State Historical Society of Iowa concurred with this finding. See Brenda W. Williams, "York's Landing," Determination of Eligibility, February 12, 1996; List of Classified Structures, Effigy Mounds National Monument, August 28, 1996).

¹⁰⁴ Betts, Red House Landing, 23; National Park Service, General Management Plan/Environmental Assessment: Effigy Mounds National Monument, Iowa (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior, 1990), 9; Hancock, Allamakee County, 237; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 111; Curtis Peebles, "Red House Landing," Park History Files, Effigy Mounds National Monument, 1993.

¹⁰⁵ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 50-51; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 108; David W. Benn and Dean M. Thompson, "Preliminary Investigation of the FTD Site" (Decorah, Iowa: Luther College Archeological Research Lab, January 16, 1976), 1, on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument.

¹⁰⁶ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 51; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 36; Allamakee County, "The Yellow River Valley," Allamakee County Iowa Economic Development, accessed at http://www.allamakeecounty.com/Miss_Allamakee.asp, on October 14, 2002; W.E. Alexander, History of Allamakee County, accessed at http://www.rootsweb.com/~iaallama/History/chapter6.htm, on October 14, 2002. Jerome E. Petsche "The Steamboat Betrand: History, Excavation, and Architecture." Publications in Archeology 11, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington 1974.

¹⁰⁷ William Green, "Ellison Orr, Effigy Mounds, and The Archaeology of Northeast Iowa," Paper presented at Effigy Mounds National Monument, 50th anniversary celebration, August 14, 1999, on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, 5; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 63-66.

¹⁰⁸ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 46; Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 25; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 70; William Green, "Charles Reuben Keyes and the History of Iowa Archaeology," Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science 99:4 (1992): 80-85.

¹⁰⁹ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 46; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 70, 74-75; Duane C. Anderson, "The Development of Archeology in Iowa: An Overview," Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science, Vol. 82, No. 1, Part 1 (1975), 71-86.

¹¹⁰ Green, "Ellison Orr, Effigy Mounds, and The Archaeology of Northeast Iowa," 6.

¹¹¹ Jesse D. Jennings, "A Summary of the Culture of the Effigy Mound Builders," M.S. on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument (1947).

¹¹² Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 26; Jennings, Summary of the Culture of Effigy Mound Builders, 19-21.

¹¹³ Paul Beaubien, quoted in Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 26.

¹¹⁴ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 82-84.

¹¹⁵ Logan, Woodland Complexes in Northeastern Iowa, 37-39; Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 27.

¹¹⁶ Logan, Woodland Complexes in Northeastern Iowa, 146-148; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 84-87; Mallam, Iowa Effigy Mound Manifestation, 27.

¹¹⁷ Logan, Woodland Complexes in Northeastern Iowa, 70-71.

¹¹⁸ Robert W. Petersen, "Summary of the Mounds in Effigy Mounds National Monument," Manuscript on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, 1983.

¹¹⁹ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 88-89.

¹²⁰ Ibid., 88.

¹²¹ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 107-108, 200.

¹²² Benn and Thompson, "Preliminary Investigation of the FTD Site (13AM210);" O'Bright, Perpetual March, 107-108, 202.

¹²³ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 89-91.

¹²⁴ Wilfred Husted, "Mound Rehabilitation Activities at Effigy Mounds National Monument," unpublished manuscript on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, 1971; Garland Gordon, "The Rehabilitation and Preservation of Indian Burial Mounds by the National Park Service," Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 73 (1968): 118-125.

¹²⁵ James E. Mount, "Mounds and Research: A General Guide for Effigy Mounds National Monument," Manuscript on file at Effigy Mounds National Monument, 1978.

¹²⁶ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 91; Mallam and Mount, "When on High," 112-114.

¹²⁷ Mallam and Mount, "When on High," 112-114.

¹²⁸ Ibid., 115-114.

¹²⁹ Ibid., 115-114.

¹³⁰ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 202; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 92.

¹³¹ Rodney Rovang, personal communication, 2003.

¹³² Bruce Bevan, "Ground-penetrating Radar Surveys at the Second Hoover House and at Effigy Mounds, Iowa," Report prepared for Midwest Archeological Center by Geosight (Pitman, New Jersey: 1982), 1-7.

¹³³ Janis L. Dial, Base Line Issues at the Sny Magill Mound Group: Mound Disturbance and Historical Cartography, Technical Report No. 41, Lincoln, NE: Midwest Archeological Center, National Park Service, 1999; Janis L. Dial, Mound Condition Forms, Sny Magill Mound Group, Effigy Mounds National Monument, Harpers Ferry, Iowa, Technical Report No. 41 Supplement, Lincoln, NE: Midwest Archeological Center, National Park Service, 1999.

¹³⁴ Beaubien, "Archaeological Investigation of the Sny-Magill Mound Group, 1952."

¹³⁵ Dale R. Henning, "Archeological Survey of the Sny Magill Unit and Testing of Four Rock Shelters, Effigy Mounds National Monument, Iowa," Report submitted to Midwest Archeological Center, National Park Service, 1989.

¹³⁶ Betts, Red House Landing, 4-5. The National Park Service possesses a draft report by John P. Staeck (n.d.) entitled "Archaeological Investigations at Red House Landing (13AM228), Allamakee County, Iowa." John Staeck has since left Luther College and Colin Betts (Luther College) is not aware that Staeck ever completed a final report for the 1993 work at Red House Landing.

¹³⁷ Steven L. De Vore, "Investigations at Effigy Mounds National Monument During the 1999 'Recent Advances in Archeological Prospection Techniques' Workshop, May 10-14, 1999," Report prepared for Effigy Mounds National Monument by Cultural Resources and National Register Program Services, 1999.

¹³⁸ Kvamme, "Archeo-Geophysical Survey at Effigy Mounds National Monument," 14-18.

¹³⁹ Thomas F. King, Cultural Resource Laws and Practice: An Introductory Guide (Walnut Creek, Calif.: Altamira Press, 1998), 273.

¹⁴⁰ Brian Ramer, "Effigy Mounds National Monument Collection Management Plan," Report prepared for the National Park Service, Midwest Region, 1997.

¹⁴¹ Karin Gustin, National Park Service, personal communication, 2003.

¹⁴² Dale R. Henning, Recommendations to NAGPRA Summary and NAGPRA Inventory, Effigy Mounds National Monument, report prepared by the Quaternary Studies Program, Illinois State Museum, 1998; Green et al., Effigy Mounds National Monument Cultural Affiliation Report.

¹⁴³ Roberta Young, personal communication, 2003.

¹⁴⁴ David G. Stanley, "Survey of Selected Mound Sites in Allamakee County, Iowa," produced for the Allamakee County Historical Press Commission by the Highland Cultural Research Center, August 1993.

¹⁴⁵ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 66.

¹⁴⁶ Ibid., 67.

¹⁴⁷ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 67; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 47-48.

¹⁴⁸ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 48-49.

¹⁴⁹ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 67-68.

¹⁵⁰ Rebecca Conard, Places of Quiet Beauty: Parks, Preserves, and Environmentalism (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1997), xiii, 7-8; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 68-69.

¹⁵¹ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 69-70. The school held its last summer program in 1941. World War II and gas rationing ended the program. According to Lenzendorf, even after the school's closure, "the interest it generated in protecting the bluffs along the river endured."

¹⁵² Conard, Places of Quiet Beauty, 89-90.

¹⁵³ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 71.

¹⁵⁴ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 71-72.

¹⁵⁵ Conard, Places of Quiet Beauty, 27; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 72; O'Bright Perpetual March, 51-52.

¹⁵⁶ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 73.

¹⁵⁷ Ibid., 73.

¹⁵⁸ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 73-74; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 195.

¹⁵⁹ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 77.

¹⁶⁰ Ibid., 78.

¹⁶¹ Ibid., 78.

¹⁶² Conard, Places of Quiet Beauty, 177-78.

¹⁶³ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 78-79.

¹⁶⁴ Conard, Places of Quiet Beauty, 178; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 80, 196.

¹⁶⁵ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 80, 90, 196-198.

¹⁶⁶ Sarah Allaback, Mission 66 Visitor Centers: The History of a Building Type (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 2000), 1-35.

¹⁶⁷ O'Bright, Perpetual March, 142-143, 199; Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 89.

¹⁶⁸ Lenzendorf, Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument, 39, 80-81; Conard, Places of Quiet Beauty, 178-179; O'Bright, Perpetual March, 106, 203. According to O'Bright, one of the reasons that Sny Magill was not included in 1949 was because the funds to run the national monument had already been appropriated. Park officials were anxious about pressing for additional acreage and worried they would appear foolish if they sought to amend the boundaries too quickly.

¹⁶⁹ Michael Maddox, "Lands Added to Effigy Mounds National Monument," January 2001, viewed at http://www.amrivers.org/therivermonitor/effigymounds.htm, on October 16, 2002.