El Malpais In the Land of Frozen Fires: A History of Occupation in El Malpais Country

¹ David A. Gallio and Joseph A. Tainter, Cultural Resources Overview Mt. Taylor Area, New Mexico, (Albuquerque and Santa Fe, New Mexico: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, and U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Forest Service, 1980), 6.

² H.L. James, "Rivers of Fire," New Mexico, 46 (September 1968): 2-4.

³ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, A Study of Alternatives El Malpais (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, n.d.), 5.

⁴ Ibid., p. 1.

⁵ Ibid., p. 5.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ James, "Rivers of Fire," 46, 4.

⁸ National Park Service, A Study of Alternatives: El Malpais, pp. 11-14.

⁹ Allen A. Carter, "Perpetual Ice Caves," October 23, 1936, Works Progress Administration, File 34, New Mexico-State Records Center & Archives, Santa Fe, New Mexico.

¹⁰ Tainter and Gallio, Cultural Resources Overview, p. 57.

¹¹ Ibid., pp. 60-61.

¹² Ibid., p. 63.

¹ Herbert E. Bolton, The Spanish Borderlands (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1921), 19-25.

² John Francis Bannon, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier 1513-1821 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974), 13. Cabeza de Vaca's account of the four survivors of Navarez's ill-starred expedition has been translated and contained in Frederick W. Hodge and Theodore H. Lewis, editors, Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543 (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907). See also Cyclone Covey, translator and editor, Cabeza de Vaca's Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America (New York: Crowell-Collier, 1961). See also Cleve Hallenbeck, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca: The Journey and Route of the First European to Cross the Continent of North America (Glendale: California, 1940).

³ Arthur R. Gómez, A Most Singular Country: A History of Occupation on the West Texas Frontier (Santa Fe: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1985), 2-5. For a detailed analysis of Cabeza de Vaca's travels, see Adolph F. Bandelier, The Discovery of New Mexico by the Franciscan Monk, Friar Marcos de Niza in 1539, trans. and ed. Madeleine Turrell Rodack (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981), 42-63. Rodack provides ample evidence that Cabeza de Vaca never reached New Mexico soil as some historians have asserted.

⁴ F. Ross Holland, Jr., Hawikuh and the Seven Cities of Cibola, Historical Background Study (U.S. Department of the Interior: National Park Service, Division of History Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, 1969), 3.

⁵ Charles C. DiPeso, John B. Rinaldo, and Gloria J. Fenner, Casas Grandes, 8 vols. (Flagstaff: Northland Press, 1974), 4:56. The trio of authors provide a comprehensive analysis of de Vaca's travel. See also Carl O. Sauer, The Road to Cibola (Berkeley: University of California, 1932), 20.

⁶ Bandelier, The Discovery of New Mexico, 68-69.

⁷ Fray Honorato dropped out of the expedition after only a few days on the trail. Beset with illness, Fray Honorato remained behind at the banks of the Pitatlan [or Petatlan] River north of Culiacan. See Bandelier, The Discovery of New Mexico, 72; and Charles C. Di Peso, Casas Grandes, 3:806.

⁸ Fr. Angelico Chavez, Coronado's Friars (Richmond: William Byrd Press, 1968) 11.

⁹ Holland, Hawikuh, 7-8; Little is known of Estevanico, although his exploits are covered in many of the Cabeza de Vaca sources. John U. Terrell, Estevanico the Black (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1968) produced a biography on the subject, however, judging from the padding and conjectural information, it hardly qualifies under the definition of a book.

¹⁰ Holland, Hawikuh, 8; Herbert E. Bolton, Coronado Knight of Pueblos and Plains. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1964) 27.

¹¹ Holland, Hawikuh, 8.

¹² Holland, Hawikuh, 9-13; Bandelier, The Discovery of New Mexico, 86-88; Hammond and Rey, Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542 2 vols. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940)141, 145; Bolton, Coronado, 35-36.

¹³ Holland, Hawikuh, 14; Fray Marcos de Niza, Percy M. Baldwin, trans., and ed., "Discovery of the Seven Cities of Cibola," Historical Society of New Mexico 1 (November 1926): 28-30; Bolton, Spanish Borderlands, 87.

¹⁴ David J. Weber, editor, New Spain's Far Northern Frontier: Essays on Spain in the American West 1540-1821 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1979), 21.

¹⁵ Ibid., 22; George P. Hammond and Agapito Rey, Narratives of the Coronado Expedition, 2: 66-79.

¹⁶ Bolton, Coronado, 50.

¹⁷ For a treatment on whether Fray Marcos viewed Zuni or not, see Bandelier, The Discovery of New Mexico, 27-39; also Holland, Hawikuh, 14-15; The arguments against Fray Marcos going to Zuni are contained in Carl O. Sauer, "The Credibility of the Fray Marcos Account," New Mexico Historical Review 16 (April 1941); Carl O. Sauer, Road to Cibola (Berkeley: University of California, 1932); Cleve Hallenbeck, The Journey of Fray Marcos de Niza (Dallas, 1949); and Henry R. Wagner, "Fray Marcos de Niza," New Mexico Historical Review 9 (April 1934); Supporters of Fray Marcos going to Zuni include the works of Bancroft, Bandelier, and Bolton; also George J. Undreiner, "Fray Marcos de Niza and His Journey to Cibola," The Americas 3 (April 1947).

¹⁸ Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 1530-1888 (Albuquerque: Horn and Wallace Publishers, 1962), 44-45.

¹⁹ Frederick W. Hodge, History of Hawikuh (Los Angeles: Ward Ritchie Press, 1937), 36, 49.

²⁰ Bandelier, The Discovery of New Mexico, 39; Father Angelico Chaves, Coronado's Friars, (Richard: William Byrn Press, 1968), 47-48.

²¹ Roy W. Foster, "Scenic Trips to the Geological Past, No. 4 Southern Zuni Mountains New Mexico, Zuni-Cibola Trail", (Socorro: State Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, 1971), 3.

²² John L. Kessell, Kiva, Cross, and Crown (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1979), 7-8.

²³ Erik K. Reed, "Spanish Expeditions and El Morro Inscriptions, 1949," manuscript in El Morro National Monument Historical Files, 2-3; Bolton, Coronado, 182-183, presents evidence that Alvarado probably passed south of El Morro.

²⁴ Bolton, Coronado, p. 182-183; Considerable debate waxes over the route taken after departing Zuni and it may never be determined to the mutual satisfaction of all concerned. Based on the writings of Fray Juan de Padilla, who accompanied Alvarado, the Spanish column reached intersecting roads approximately 15 miles east of Hawikuh. Padilla recorded, "two roads branched out here, one to Chia [Zia], the other to Coco [Acoma]. We followed the latter." From Padilla's account it would appear that Alvarado approached Acoma from the southwest. See Chavez, Coronado's Friars, 50-51; However, it is possible that Alvarado's column reached Acoma Pueblo via the Rio San Jose Valley. See map in Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 54, which suggests Alvarado descended the Rio San Jose and Coronado traveled south of the malpais missing Acoma altogether.

²⁵ Bancroft, A History of Arizona and New Mexico, 50. Another Spaniard reported the Acomas were friendly, offering the Spanish "cotton cloth, skins of buffalo and deer, turquoises, turkeys, and some of their other kinds of food." See Bolton, Coronado, 183.

²⁶ Bancroft, A History of Arizona and New Mexico, fn. 50. Kessell, Kiva, Cross, and Crown, 8. Warren A. Beck, New Mexico, A History of Four Centuries (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 48.

²⁷ Warren A. Beck, New Mexico, A History of Four Centuries (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 48.

²⁸ Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 75-78.

²⁹ Luxan's journal also records the first historical documentation for visiting El Morro. See Reed, "Spanish Expeditions and El Morro Inscriptions," 8. Velma Garcia-Mason. "Acoma Pueblo," in Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 9, Alfonso Ortiz, ed. (Washington: Smithsonian), 456.

³⁰ Velma Garcia-Mason. "Acoma Pueblo," in Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 9, Alfonso Ortiz, ed. (Washington: Smithsonian), 456.

³¹ Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 140.

³² Garcia-Mason, "Acoma Pueblo," 457; Jack D. Forbes, Apache, Navaho, and Spaniard (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960), 87-88 places the blame for the conflict squarely on the soldiers who forcibly took food and blankets away from the Indians, and in particular one Indian woman. Some Acoma accounts revealed the battle erupted following the death of an Indian who refused to relinquish possession of food and blankets.

³³ Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 145; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, The National Survey of Historic Sites and Building, Theme IV, Spanish Exploration and Settlement (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1959), 92; According to the study, Acomas lost 1,500, representing about half of the total Acoma population. In Garcia-Mason, "Acoma Pueblo," 57, the number of deaths is listed at more than 800; Kessel, Kiva, Cross, and Crown, 86, claims the number of captives exceeded 500.

³⁴ Ibid. Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 143-145.

³⁵ Garcia-Mason, "Acoma Pueblo," 457; Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 145.

³⁶ Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 141-142.

³⁷ Ward A. Minge, Acoma Pueblo in the Sky (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1976), 12.

³⁸ Garcia-Mason, "Acoma Pueblo," 457; Myra Ellen Jenkins. "Oñate's Administration and the Pueblo Indians," in When Cultures Meet (Santa Fe: Sunstone Press, 1987), 69 provides evidence that while amputations were meted out as punishment to the Acoma it was not widespread.

³⁹ Minge, Acoma Pueblo in the Sky, 15.

⁴⁰ Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 145; Edward H. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1972), 157.

⁴¹ National Park Service, brochure "El Morro National Monument," (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1988).

⁴² National Park Service, The National Survey, Theme IV, Spanish Exploration and Settlement, 30.

⁴³ Garcia-Mason, "Acoma Pueblo," 457-458.

⁴⁴ National Park Service, brochure "El Morro National Monument."

⁴⁵ National Park Service, The National Survey, Theme IV, Spanish Exploration and Settlement, 30-32.

⁴⁶ Beck, New Mexico, A History of Four Centuries, 86.

⁴⁷ National Park Service, Brochure "El Morro National Monument."

⁴⁸ National Park Service, The National Survey, Theme IV, Spanish Exploration and Settlement, 31-32.

⁴⁹ Quoted in National Park Service, National Survey, Theme IV, Spanish Exploration and Settlement, 32; A.F. Bandelier, "An Outline of the Documentary History of the Zuni Tribe," Journal of American Ethnology and Archeology 3 (1892): 95

¹ Tainter and Gillio, Cultural Resources Overview, 130.

² Ibid., 130-131.

³ Ibid., 130.

⁴ Ibid.

⁵ Florence H. Ellis, "Laguna Pueblo," in Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 9, Alfonso Ortiz, ed. (Washington: Smithsonian), 456.

⁶ Garcia-Mason, "Acoma Pueblo," 458; the decline of persons living on top of the mesa is adequately demonstrated by the 1959 report on the Acoma Indians enclosed with The Survey of Historic Sites and buildings, Theme IV, Spanish Exploration and Settlement, 93. The National Park Service document stated that "about 20 people live here continuously; the rest of the tribe resides at Acomita, 15 miles distant, and gathers at Acoma for periodic festivals." In 1989, approximately 50 people reside year-round on the mesa top. Information from the Governor's office, Acoma Pueblo, January 30, 1989.

⁷ Max L. Moorehead, The Apache Frontier, Jacobo Ugarte and Spanish-Indian Relations in Northern New Spain, 1769-1791 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), 172.

⁸ Anthropologists disagree as to when the Navajos first penetrated the Rio San Jose Valley. Albert H. Schroeder, "Navajo and Apache Relationships West of the Rio Grande," El Palacio 70 (September 1963): 5-10, suggests that Navajos did not venture south of Jemez Pueblo until the seventeenth century. Adolph Bandelier argues that the Navajos were already in the vicinity by the middle of the sixteenth century. See Adolph Bandelier, Final Report of Investigations Among the Indians of the Southwestern United States, Carried on Mainly from 1880-1885. Papers of the Archeological Institute of America, "American Series 4." (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1892, 294.

⁹ Ellis, "Laguna Pueblo," 441-442.

¹⁰ Schroeder, El Palacio, 11.

¹¹ Tainter and Gillio, Cultural Resources Overview, 131; Bancroft, History of Arizona and New Mexico, 248.

¹² Ellis, "Laguna Pueblo," 442.

¹³ Ibid., Ellis reports that the Spanish families began moving into the area around 1800.

¹⁴ In 1804 Navajos sacked Cebolleta. Several months later the Navajos returned with a larger assemblage. Only the propitious arrival of Spanish soldiers stymied the attackers. See Tainter and Gillio, Cultural Resources Overview, 130-131.

¹⁵ Schroeder, El Palacio, 11.

¹⁶ National Park Service, The Dominguez-Escalante Trail 1776-1777: Public Information Brochure (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1979), 3.

¹⁷ National Park Service, The Dominguez-Escalante Trail, 3-4.

¹⁸ Ted Warner, editor, The Dominguez-Escalante Journal (Provo: Brigham Young University, 1976), 116. Fathers Dominguez and Escalante resided at Zuni for nearly three weeks. One theory states the priests remained to participate in the Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe, which took place on December 12. Another reason for lingering at Zuni was to allow Father Dominguez time to inspect the mission, part of the functions of his journey. Zuni Pueblo was Fray Escalante's appointed mission and may have been the reason for the lengthy stay at the pueblo.

¹⁹ Warner, Dominguez-Escalante Journal, 116.

²⁰ National Park Service, Dominguez-Escalante Trail, 4.

²¹ Cynthia Ramsay, Dominguez-Escalante in the Southwest (Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1978), quoted in National Park Service, Dominguez-Escalante Trail, 1.

²² Maurice Fulton and Paul Horgan, New Mexico's Own Chronicle (Dallas: Banks Upshaw and Company, 1937), 77-78;

²³ Ibid., 81.

²⁴ Ibid.

²⁵ Richard F. Van Valkenburgh, Dine Bikeyah (Window Rock, Arizona: United States Department of the Interior, Office of Indian Affairs Navajo Service, 1941), 48. Cubero's origin goes farther back than the 1830s. Founded in the eighteenth century, it developed into a Spanish military post and Navajo trading post. United States troops occupied Cubero in 1846. They used it sporadically until 1851. Cubero takes it name from Spanish Governor Don Jose Cubero. Variants of the name appear on maps and related New Mexico histories--Cubera, Cubberro, and Cuvero. The 1776 Dominguez-Escalante map spells it Cubera.

²⁶ Tainter and Gillio, Cultural Resources Overview, 132-133.

²⁷ Beck, New Mexico, A History of Four Centuries, 119.

¹ Beck, New Mexico A History of Four Centuries, 134-136; quotation taken from William E. Smith, The Francis Preston Blair Family in Politics, 2 Vols. (New York: n.p., 1933), n.p.; The prophecy of Doniphan crystallized on January 19, 1847, in Taos when Governor Charles Bent and five other people were murdered. Bent must shoulder some of the blame for his death since he failed to adequately measure the feelings of the people. Just a few weeks before, Bent had uncovered a plot to kill him, but he convinced himself that no harm would come to him.

² L.R. Bailey, The Long Walk (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1964), 3.

³ Ibid., 4; Quotation from John T. Hughes, Doniphan's Expedition; Containing an Account of the Conquest of New Mexico. (Cincinnati: J.A. & U.P. James, 1847), 145.

⁴ Elaine W. Higgins, "The Bear Springs Story A History of Fort Wingate McKinley County New Mexico," typescript, no publisher, no date, copy in History Division Library, Museum of New Mexico, Santa Fe, 4; For a biographical sketch of Captain John W. Reid see, Ralph Emerson Twitchell, The History of the Military Occupation of the Territory of New Mexico From 1846 to 1851 by the Government of the United States (Chicago: Rio Grande Press Inc., 1963), 346-360.

⁵ Bernard DeVoto, The Year of Decision 1846 (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1943), 380.

⁶ Ibid., 4

⁷ William E. Connelley, Doniphan's Expedition and the Conquest of New Mexico and California, (Kansas City: Bryant & Douglas Books and Stationery Co., 1907), 313. Connelley's work is a reprint of Hughes' earlier edition, but with added information.

⁸ Harold L. James, "The History of Fort Wingate," in "Guidebook of Defiance--Zuni-Mt. Taylor Region Arizona and New Mexico," New Mexico Geological Society, Eighteenth Field Conference, October 19, 20, and 21, 1967, 152.

⁹ Howard Roberts Lamar, The Far Southwest 1846-1912, A Territorial History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966), 94; Quoted from Congressional Globe, 32nd Cong., 2nd Sess. (January 10, 1853), 104.

¹⁰ Ibid., 153.

¹¹ James W. Abert, Abert's New Mexico Report. ed. William A. Keleher (Albuquerque: Horn and Wallace, 1962), vi-vii. see also Senate Executive Documents, 30th Cong., 1st sess., No. 23 (1848); also House of Representative Executive Documents, 1st Sess., No. 41 (1848).

¹² This material as well as the information on page 44 is taken from Lt. James H. Simpson, Navaho Expedition: Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fe, New Mexico to the Navaho Country Made in 1849. ed. Frank McNitt (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), 140.

¹³ Ibid., 141.

¹⁴ Ibid., 143.

¹⁵ Ibid.

¹⁶ William H. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 244-246.

¹⁷ Ibid., 287.

¹⁸ Executive Documents, 33rd Cong., 2nd sess., Vol. III, Part I, Chap. 8, No. 91 (1854), 62.

¹⁹ Ibid., 63.

²⁰ W. Turrentine Jackson, Wagon Roads West (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 241.

²¹ Averam B. Bender, "Military Transportation in the Southwest, 1848-1860," New Mexico Historical Review, 32 (April 1957):146-147.

²² Jackson, Wagon Roads West, 245; Bender, "Military Transportation in the Southwest, 1848-1860" reports 25 camels went with Beale.

²³ Two accounts of the camel experiment are: Harlan D. Fowler, Camels to California (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1950) and Odie B. Faulk, The U.S. Camel Corps (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976).

²⁴ House of Representatives, Executive Documents, 35th Cong., 1st sess., No. 124 (1858).

²⁵ Ibid., 33.

²⁶ Ibid., 86-87.

²⁷ Jackson, Wagon Roads West, 251.

²⁸ House of Representatives, Executive Documents, 36th Cong., 1st sess., No. 42 (1860), 35. For further information on the journey see the John Udell Journal, edited by N.A. Kovach (Los Angeles: publisher unknown, 1946).

²⁹ Jackson, Wagon Roads West, 255.

³⁰ William S. Greever, "Railway Development in the Southwest," New Mexico Historical Review 32 (April 1957):153.

¹ Gerald Thompson, The Army and the Navajo (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1982), 4-9. The following account of American-Navajo difficulties is based on Thompson's chapter on "The Navajo Problem."

² Ibid., 6.

³ Ibid., 6-7.

⁴ Max L. Heyman, Jr. Prudent Soldier: A Biography of Major General E.R.S. Canby, 1817-1873 (Glendale: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1959), 179.

⁵ Herbert M. Hart, Pioneer Forts of the West (Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, 1967), 140.

⁶ William A. Keleher, Turmoil in New Mexico, 1846-1868 (Santa Fe: The Rydall Press, 1952), 297-298.

⁷ Laird Savage, "Fort Wingate," New Mexico Magazine 38 (August 1960): 38.

⁸ Heyman, Prudent Soldier: A Biography of Major General E.R.S. Canby, 1817-1873, 185.

⁹ Heyman, Prudent Soldier: A Biography of Major General E.R.S. Canby, 1817-1873, 159-160.

¹⁰ Keleher, Turmoil in New Mexico, 202; L.R. Bailey, The Long Walk, 149.

¹¹ Howard Roberts Lamar, The Far Southwest, 1846-1912, A Territorial History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966), 121; A brief biographical sketch of Carleton is contained in, Constance W. Altshuler, Chains of Command, Arizona and the Army, 1856-1875 (Tucson: Arizona Historical Society, 1981), 241-242; A complete biography of Carleton is, Aurora Hunt, Major General James Henry Carleton, 1814-1873, Western Frontier Dragoon (Glendale: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1958).

¹² Robert M. Utley, Frontiersmen in Blue, the United States Army and the Indians, 1848-1865 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981), 233.

¹³ Frank McNitt, Navajo Wars (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1964), 429.

¹⁴ Bailey, The Long Walk, 149.

¹⁵ The 1st New Mexico Cavalry Volunteers were officially organized May 31, 1862, following the consolidation of the lst, 2nd, 4th, and 5th Regiment of New Mexico Infantry. Frederick H. Dyer, A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion, vol. 3 New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1959), 1366.

¹⁶ Fort Wingate, N.M. (1862-1914), Record Group 393, Records of the United States Army Commands, National Archives.

¹⁷ Fort Wingate Post Returns, October 1862, National Archives and Records Service, Microfilm Copy Roll 1448, roll 1, RG 94; Copy used is from Coronado Room, University of New Mexico; Carleton to Chavez, September 28, 1862, LS, Dept. NM, M-1072, roll 3, RG 393.

¹⁸ Rafael Chacon, Legacy of Honor, The Life of Rafael Chacon, a Nineteenth-Century New Mexican, Jacqueline D. Meketa, ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986), 191.

¹⁹ J. Francisco Chavez Papers, Hayden File, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Arizona; Santa Fe New Mexican, November 21, 1863.

²⁰ Rio Abajo Weekly Press (New Mexico), June 23, 1863.

²¹ Carleton to Chavez, October 12, 1862, LS, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 3, RG-393.

²² Major Ethan W. Eaton to AAG, April 7, 1864, Letters Received, Department of New Mexico, Microfilms Publication M-1173, roll 23, Records of the United States Continental Commands, 1821-1920, Record Group 393, National Archives (Hereafter LR, Dept NM, M-1173, roll 23, RG 393) Copy used is from Coronado Room, University of New Mexico; Darlis A. Miller, Soldiers and Settlers; Military Supply in the Southwest, 1861-1885, (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989), 226-228.

²³ Miller, Soldiers and Settlers, 227.

²⁴ Chavez to AAG, November 7, 1862, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 25, RG 393.

²⁵ San Francisco Alta California, March 13, 1863. Shaw commanded Company F, 1st New Mexico Volunteers.

²⁶ Darlis A. Miller, Soldiers and Settlers, 226.

²⁷ Herbert M. Hart, Pioneer Forts of the West (Seattle: Superior Publishing Company, 1967), 141.

²⁸ Carleton to Brig. Gen. Joseph R. West commanding District of Arizona, LS, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 3, RG 393; Anderson to Carleton, November 16, 1862, LR, Dept NM, M-1120, roll 15, RG 393; Miller, Soldiers and Settlers, 226.

²⁹ Chavez to Assistant Adjutant General, Department of New Mexico, November 7, 1862, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 25, RG 393.

³⁰ Frank D. Reeve, "The Federal Indian Policy in New Mexico, 1858-1880," New Mexico Historical Review 12 (July 1937): 249.

³¹ Reeve, New Mexico Historical Review, 248.

³² Ironically, the horses were recaptured by Navajos friendly to the Army and were guided to Jemez Springs and left there for safekeeping. Chavez to AAG, March 1, 1863, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 18, RG 393.

³³ Carleton to Chavez, March 6, 1863, LS, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 18, RG 393.

³⁴ Reeve, New Mexico Historical Review, 251; Frank McNitt, "Fort Sumner: A Study in Origin," New Mexico Historical Review 45 (July 1970): 112-113.

³⁵ Chavez to Carleton, March 1, 1863, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 18, RG 393; Edwin L. Sabin, Kit Carson Days Adventures in the Path of Empire, vol. 2, (New York: Press of the Pioneers, Inc., 1935), 710.

³⁶ Report of Capt. Rafael Chacon, June 30, 1863, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 18, RG 393.

³⁷ Keleher, Turmoil in New Mexico, 303.

³⁸ Hunt, Major General James Henry Carleton, 276.

³⁹ Darlis A. Miller, The California Column in New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982), 5-6.

⁴⁰ Canby had been critical of the New Mexico Volunteers following the battle of Valverde, accusing them of running from the battlefield. Chacon, Legacy of Honor, 240.

⁴¹ Chacon to Assistant Adjutant General, August 11, 1863, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 18, RG 393.

⁴² Chacon, Legacy of Honor, 228-231; Chacon's memoirs provide excellent details while stationed at Fort Wingate. See chapter "Fort Wingate," 221-244.

⁴³ Chavez to Assistant Adjutant General, September 2, 1863, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 18, RG 393.

⁴⁴ Chavez to Carleton, September 23, 1863, LR, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 18, RG 393.

⁴⁵ Keleher, Turmoil in New Mexico, fn. 487-488;

⁴⁶ The clash of military and political opinions between General Carleton and Colonel Chavez continued and finally impaled their relationship. Chavez resigned his commission. Afterwards, he entered the political arena serving as New Mexico's Congressional Delegate to the 40th and 41st Congress. New Mexicans so valued his political skills that they elected him to eight terms to New Mexico's legislature. J. Francisco Chavez Papers, Hayden File, Arizona Historical Society; Bailey, The Long Walk, 335;

⁴⁷ L.R. Bailey, If You Take My Sheep: The Evolution and Conflicts of Navajo Pastoralism, 1630-1868 (Pasadena: Westernlore Publications, Co., 1980), 241.

⁴⁸ Thompson, The Army and the Navajo, 22.

⁴⁹ Bailey, The Long Walk, 161-162.

⁵⁰ Bailey, The Long Walk, 167.

⁵¹ Ibid., 168.

⁵² Report of Capt. Francis McCabe to AAG, May 12, 1864, LR, Dept NM, Selected Documents Relating to the Navajo Indians, 1864-1868, roll 1, Records of U.S. Army Commands, Record Group 98, National Archives (hereafter LR, Dept NM, roll 1, RG 98). Microfilm copy used is from New Mexico State Archives and Records Service, Santa Fe.

⁵³ Ibid; Report of Lt. Jose Sanchez, January 15, 1865, to AAG LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁵⁴ Lt. John Ayers to Departmental Headquarters, March 20, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁵⁵ Eaton to AAG, Feb. 13, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁵⁶ Report of Captain Donaciano Montoya to AAG, February 13, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁵⁷ Lt. Col. Julius Shaw to AAG, May 25, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98; See also Shaw to AAG, November 11, 1865, LS, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁵⁸ Shaw to AAG, May 25, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98. The timber guard consisted of one corporal and six privates from Companies B and F, 1st New Mexico Cavalry Volunteers.

⁵⁹ Shaw to AAG, June 20, 1865, LS, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98; Shaw to AAG, June 23, 1865, LS, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁶⁰ Shaw to AAG, July 10, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁶¹ Shaw to AAG, July 24, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁶² Shaw to AAG, August 8, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁶³ Report of Captain Montoya to AAG, August 22, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁶⁴ Report of Captain Hodt to AAG, August 29, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁶⁵ Shaw to AAG, October 17, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁶⁶ Roman Baca to Lt. Col. Shaw, Nov. 10, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 1, RG 98.

⁶⁷ Shaw to Baca, Nov. 12, 1865, LR, Dept NM, roll 1, RG 98.

⁶⁸ Carleton to Commanding Officer Fort Wingate, LS, Dept NM, M-1072, roll 3, RG 393.

⁶⁹ Citizens of Cubero Petition to General Carleton, March 8, 1866, LR, Dept NM, roll 2, RG 98.

⁷⁰ Captain Edmund Butler to AAG, March 24, 1866, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98.

⁷¹ Butler to AAG, March 29, 1866, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98; Butler complained to Carleton that even with more men, he lacked serviceable horses. Some of the soldiers, he confessed, resorted to riding mules.

⁷² Butler to AAG, May 9, 1866, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98.

⁷³ Butler to AAG, September 2, 1866, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98; Born about 1818 at the springs that now bear his name, Manuelito emerged from the Navajo wars as one of the principal Navajo leaders. In the 1870s, Manueltio became chief of the eastern Navajos, Ganado Mucho the western branch. He died at Manuelito Springs in 1893 of pneumonia, complicated by alcoholism. See Richard F. Van Valkenburgh, "Dine Bikeyah" Lucy Wilcox Adams and John C. McPhee ed. United States Dept. of Interior, Office of Indian Affairs, Navajo Service, Window Rock, Arizona, 1941, 91; Keleher, Turmoil in New Mexico, 501.

⁷⁴ Butler to AAG, November 25, 1866, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98; See Butler's letters of December 1, 11, and 15, 1866 in LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98; Keleher, Turmoil in New Mexico, 501.

⁷⁵ Returns from Fort Wingate, New Mexico, Microfilm Publications 617, roll 1448, Records of the Adjutant General's Office, Record Group 94, National Archives (hereafter, Returns, Fort Wingate, M-617, roll 1448, RG 94).

⁷⁶ Butler to AAG, April 28 and August 16, 1867, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98.

⁷⁷ Proceedings of a Board of Officers at Fort Wingate to AAG, S.O. 83, July 28, 1867, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98.

⁷⁸ Butler to AAG, August 21, 1867, LR, Dist NM, roll 3, RG 98; Miller, Soldiers and Settlers, 227-228.

⁷⁹ Bailey, The Long Walk, 151-152.

⁸⁰ Fort Wingate, N.M. (1862-1914), Records of the United States Army Commands, Record Group 393, National Archives Records Service; Miller, Soldiers and Settlers, 227-228;

⁸¹ Higgins, "The Bear Springs Story," 14; The army razed Fort Wingate removing the lumber to new Fort Wingate, located 15 miles east of present-day Gallup. Families who settled near old Fort Wingate cannibalized the structures for their own use. By 1959, little vestiges of the post remained except for several perimeter posts. In 1989, not even these existed.

¹ Garcia-Mason, "Acoma Pueblo," 459.

² Minge, Acoma, 61-64.

³ Josephine Barela, Ojo del Gallo (Grants: Service Printing & Office Supply, n.d), 9.

⁴ Barela, Ojo del Gallo, 10.

⁵ Ibid., 11.

⁶ Ibid.

⁷ Freddie Anderson, history project, "Tinaja file," December 19, 1979, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus, Grants, New Mexico.

⁸ Ibid.

⁹ "Inventory of the County Archives of Valencia County, New Mexico," September 1940, WPA Files, Folder 265, Number 31, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ William S. Greever, The Santa Fe Railway and Its Western Land Grant (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1954), 153.

¹² Gary L. Tietjen, Encounter with the Frontier (Los Alamos: n.p., 1969), 104.

¹³ L.L. Waters, Steel Trails to Santa Fe (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1950), 64-65.

¹⁴ Waters, Steel Trails to Santa Fe, 66.

¹⁵ William S. Greever, "Railway Development in the Southwest," New Mexico Historical Review 32 (April 1957): 164.

¹⁶ Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

¹⁷ James Marshall, Santa Fe The Railroad that Built an Empire (New York: Random House, 1945), 168.

¹⁸ Minge, Acoma, 65.

¹⁹ Waters, Steel Trails to Santa Fe, 248.

²⁰ David F. Myrick, New Mexico's Railroads An Historical Survey (Golden: Colorado Railroad Historical Foundation, Inc., 1970), 34.

²¹ The Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982, reports that the railroad reached Grants in July 1881. This is an error because the Daily New Mexican, February 2, 1881, announced rails had been installed as far as new Fort Wingate, east of Gallup. See Waters, Steel Trails to Santa Fe, 69. The activity in June 1881 most likely involved the erection of buildings following the railroad's decision to establish a coaling station at Grant.

²² Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition, 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

¹ Christine Adams, interview held in her home, Grants, New Mexico, September 19, 1988; Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition, 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

² Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 55.

³ Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, April 30, 1982; Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 55.

⁴ Ralph Charles, "Development of the Partido System in the New Mexico Sheep Industry," (State College: New Mexico, 1940), 26-27; "Territorial Census 1885, Valencia County," Territorial Archives of New Mexico, Reel 43, Frames 393-394, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

⁵ Barela, Ojo del Gallo, 8-9; Interview with David Candelaria at his home at the Ice Caves, September 23, 1988.

⁶ Interview with Manuel Padilla at Grants, New Mexico, interviewee George Dannenbaum, February 9, 1984, Special Collections Room, Grants Community College; Interview with Pierre Arrossa at his home in Grants, New Mexico, September 21, 1988.

⁷ Interviews with Manuel Padilla and Pierre Arrossa

⁸ "Territorial Census 1885, Valencia County," Territorial Archives of New Mexico, Reel 43, Frames 393-394, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe..

⁹ Greever, Arid Domain, 48.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ "New Mexico Inc. Cattle Companies, 1870-1900," Acoma Land & Cattle Company, Incorporation, Victor Westphall Collection, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

¹² Christine Jones, "Place Names in Valencia County," 1938, WPA Files, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

¹³ Ibid., 4.

¹⁴ C.L. Codperrider and B.A. Hendrix, Soil Erosion in the Rio Grande Valley Technical Bulletion No. 567, (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture, 1937), 88.

¹⁵ T.M. Pearce, ed., New Mexico Place Names, A Geographical Dictionary (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1965), 39, 46, 67, and 120.

¹⁶ Vernon J. Glover and Joseph P. Hereford, Jr., Zuni Mountain Railroads Cibola National Forest, New Mexico Cultural Resources Management Report No. 6, (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, Southwestern Region, September 1986), 3; (hereafter cited as Zuni Mountain Railroads).

¹⁷ Ibid., 4.

¹⁸ Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 106.

¹⁹ Glover and Hereford, Zuni Mountain Railroads, 6.

²⁰ Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 89.

²¹ Waters, Steel Trails to Santa Fe, 250.

²² Glover and Hereford, Zuni Mountain Railraod, 32.

²³ Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 89.

²⁴ Ibid.

²⁵ Glover and Hereford, Zuni Mountain Railroad, 35.

²⁶ Ibid., 40.

²⁷ Christine Jones, "Place names in Valencia County, Corrections on MMS. of October 7, 1938," WPA Files, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

²⁸ "Inventory of the County Archives of Valencia County New Mexico," September 20, 1940, WPA Files, Folder 265, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe; Mary Henderson, "Historical Sketch of L.D.S. Settlements in New Mexico," unpublished manuscript, University of New Mexico, n.d., 29-31; Jones, "Place Names in Valencia County," WPA Files, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

²⁹ Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982; Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 55-56.

³⁰ Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 56-57; J. Wesley Huff,"Malpais Mystery," New Mexico Magazine 25 (April 1947): 17;

³¹ See Tietjen, Encounter With the Frontier, 45-47. In an interview with Grants native, Wilber Thigpen, Thigpen remembers that gold searchers made an annual pilgrimage to Grants and stayed at his father's motel on Santa Fe Avenue. During the day the treasure hunters combed the malpais in search of Adams' gold. See Wilber Thigpen, interview held in Grants, New Mexico, August 26, 1988, oral history tape deposited at El Malpais National Monument.

¹ Glover and Hereford, Zuni Mountain Railroads, 40.

² Grant Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

³ Glover and Hereford, Zuni Mountain Railroads, 43; Grant Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

⁴ Glover and Hereford, Zuni Mountain Railroads, 44.

⁵ Hope McClure, "Grants, New Mexico, Where Did It Come From? Where is it Going?" August 24, 1988, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus; "Brainstorm Workshop, March 24, 1986, Session 1, History of Grants, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus.

⁶ Jones, "Corrections on MMS of October 7, 1938," WPA Files, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe; "Inventory of the County Archives of Valencia County, New Mexico," September 1940, WPA Files, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe; "This is Grants," pamphlet, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus; Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982; There is some confusion as to when the dam was completed. Jones's "Corrections on MMS of October 7, 1938, and the "This is Grants" pamphlet report the completion date as 1927. The centennial edition of Grants published by the Grants Daily Beacon states the dam was finished in 1929.

⁷ Freddie Anderson, "Tinaja File," Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus; Evon Z. Vogt, Modern Homesteaders (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1955) 37; Interview with Lewis Bright at his home near the Ice Caves, August 23, 1988, tape and transcript now in possession of El Malpais National Monument.

⁸ "Our Public Lands," Grants Daily Beacon, October 1, 1987.

⁹ Grants Daily Beacon, October 1, 1987; Interview with Mr. and Mrs. Aldridge and Mr. Lewis Bright in Grants, New Mexico, September 1987, titled Oral History around El Malpais, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus.

¹⁰ Interview with Lewis Bright, August 23, 1988; Interview with Christine Adams, September 19, 1988; Interview with Mr. and Mrs. Aldridge and Mr. Lewis Bright, September 1987. All interviews with the exception of the combined Aldridge and Bright interview are on file with El Malpais National Monument. The Aldridge and Bright interview is on file in the Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus.

¹¹ Interview with Lewis Bright, September, 1987, Grants, New Mexico, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus.

¹² Interview with Wilbur Thigpen, Grants, New Mexico, August 26, 1988.

¹³ Jones, "Corrections on MMS of October 7, 1938," WPA Files, New Mexico Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

¹⁴ Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

¹⁵ Barela, Ojo del Gallo, 26.

¹⁶ Ibid.; Interview with Pierre Arrossa, September 21, 1988, Grants, New Mexico. Mr. Arrossa, himself a Basque herder, claimed that because of low wages many of the larger sheepmen could not fund shepherds to watch their flocks. By 1940, few sheep ranchers remained in business in the malpais region.

¹⁷ Tietjen, Encounter with the Frontier, 64.

¹⁸ Ibid., 62-63.

¹⁹ Glover and Hereford, Zuni Mountain Railroads, 44-50.

²⁰ "The Lumber Industry and Grants," February 21, 1984, taped interview, interviewee unknown, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus.

²¹ Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

²² "This is Grants," Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus.

²³ Interview with Vidal Mirabal, on carrot industry, April 17, 1984, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Campus; Interview with Wilbur Thigpen, August 26, 1988, tape on file at El Malpais National Monument.

²⁴ James E and Barbara Sherman, Ghost Towns and Mining Camps of New Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980), 69.

²⁵ Interview with Lewis and Dovie Bright, August 23, 1988; Albuquerque Journal, September 21, 1941.

²⁶ Albuquerque Journal, September 21, 1941; Hope McClure, "Grants, New Mexico Where Did it Come From? Where is it Going?" August 24, 1988, Special Collections Room, New Mexico State University, Grants Community College.

²⁷ U.S., President, Proclamation, "Withdrawing Public Lands for use of the War Department as a Bombing Range," Federal Register, , No., April 13, 1943, 4799, also in General Land Office, Public Land Order 108. Sections 14, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28, and 29 of T7N, R11W were withdrawn from public use. The nine square miles comprised three tracts of land. Sections 15, 21, 23, and 27, owned by the New Mexico-Arizona Land Company, and Section 16, property of the State of New Mexico were removed from the public domain under a Petition in Condemnation under the War Powers Act (Title 50, Section 171, U.S.C.A.); also removed were Bureau of Land Management administered lands, Sections 14, 22, 26, and 28, see United States v. 5760 Acres of Land, More or less, Situate in Valencia County, New Mexico; And New Mexico and Arizona Land Company, ET AL, U.S. District Court, District of New Mexico, Civil Action 512, June 15, 1943, copy in Superintendent's file El Malpais National Monument.

²⁸ Superintendent's file on El Malpais bombing range El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

²⁹ Interview with Christine Adams in Grants, New Mexico, September 19, 1988.

³⁰ Headquarters Second Air Force, Colorado Springs, Colo., to Commanding General, Army Air Forces, Washington, D.C., September 25, 1944, copy in Superintendent's file, El Malpais National Monument.

³¹ United States of America vs State of New Mexico and the New Mexico-Arizona Land Company, Civil Action 512, August 21, 1944, United State District Court for the District of New Mexico, also filed, April 28, 1944, and June 21, 1944; U.S., President Proclamation, "Revoking Public Land Order 108 of March 31, 1943, Withdrawing Public Lands for Use of War Department as a Bombing Range," Federal Register no number, field February 15, 1947, 47-1348, all materials from Superintendent's file El Malpais National Monument.

³² United States v. State Of New Mexico and New Mexico-Arizona Land Company, August 21, 1944, United States District Court, District of New Mexico, copy in Superintendent's file El Malpais National Monument.

³³ In a "Certificate of Clearance" letter, Captain Edward W. Kerwin, 9800 TSU-CE Detachment No. 12, Engineer-Range Clearance Team reported on August 12, 1953, "All metal and military scrap, approximately 80 tons (160,000 lbs) stockpiled at center of former Kirtland Air Force Bombing Target N-11 . . . is safe and free of dangerous and/or explosive materials and can be used or transported in any way for which the metal is suited, see "Captain Edward W. Kerwin's "Certificate of Clearance" letter August 12, 1953, Superintendent's file El Malpais National Monument,

³⁴ Memo from Les Boothe, Bureau of Land Management to Area Manager Rio Puerco Resource Area, Albuquerque, August 12, 1988, Superintendent's file El Malpais National Monument.

³⁵ Herrick E. Hanks, Bureau of Land Management, Rio Puerco Resource Area Manager, to Mr. Bob Bailey, Explosive Safety Board, Dept. of the Army, Washington, D.C., January 27, 1987,. Superintendent's file El Malpais National Monument.

³⁶ Grants Daily Beacon, New Mexico, Centennial Edition 1882-1982, April 30, 1982.

³⁷ Ibid.

³⁸ Ibid.

¹ Interview with Wilber Thigpen in Grants, New Mexico, August 26, 1988, tape on file at El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

² Roger Toll to Arno B. Cammerer, May 15, 1934, Superintendent's file, El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

³ Evon Z. Vogt to Arno B. Cammerer, December 29, 1933, Superintendent's file, El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

⁴ Jesse L. Nusbaum to Arno B. Cammerer, November 28, 1933, Superintendent's file, El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

⁵ Toll to Cammerer, May 15, 1934.

⁶ John E. Kell to Milton J. McColm, May 18, 1936, El Malpais National Monument file, Southwest Regional Office, Division of Planning.

⁷ Grants Review, July 23, 1936.

⁸ Silver City Enterprise, January 1, 1937.

⁹ Mr. David Candelaria, owner of the commercial Ice Caves, indicated in a telephone interview, November 23, 1988, that Mr. Mirabal purchased the caves from a timber company.

¹⁰ Telephone interview with David Candelaria, November 27, 1988. Candelaria maintains that local tradition indicates that soldiers from Ft. Wingate located at San Rafael made frequent trips to the cave for ice. El Morro caretaker, Evon Vogt, claims an Acoma boy herding his sheep discovered the cave in 1923; Vogt to Cammerer, December 29, 1933; Jean Cody, " Points of Interest Valencia County," WPA Files, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, credits Charles Fletcher Lummis with discovering the cave, while hunting bear.

¹¹ Toll to Cammerer, May 15, 1934, in section marked "Supplemental Data," page 19.

¹² Albuquerque Journal, July 24, 1938; Albuquerque Tribune, July 23, 1938; Christine Jones, "Place Names Valencia County," WPA Files, New Mexico State Records Center and Archives, Santa Fe.

¹³ Ibid.

¹⁴ Vincent V. Colby to Harold Ickes, July 25, 1938.

¹⁵ Milton J. McColm, J. E. Kell, Charles Gould, and Erik K. Reed, "Special Report: The Ice Caves Area, Valencia County, New Mexico," (1938), typescript on file with National Park Service, Southwest Region, Division of Planning, 1-2, hereafter cited as "Special Report."

¹⁶ Memorandum from Regional Director, Region III, Southwest Region National Park Service to Director, National Park Service, January 6, 1943, on file with the National Park Service, Southwest Region, Division of Planning.

¹⁷ "Special Report," 13.

¹⁸ Cecil Moore to National Park Service, Southwest Regional Office, June 12, 1939, National Park Service, Southwest Region, Division of Planning.

¹⁹ Ibid.

²⁰ Herbert Walker, Acting Regional Director, Southwest Region to Cecil Moore, June 22, 1939, National Park Service, Southwest Regional Office, Division of Planning.

²¹ Telephone interview with David Candelaria, November 27, 1988.

²² Oral history interview with David Candelaria in his home at the Ice Caves, September 23, 1988, tape deposited at El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

²³ Ibid.

²⁴ Oral history interview with Ina Elkins, Bluewater, New Mexico, September 22, 1988, tape deposited with El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

²⁵ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, "A Study of Alternatives, El Malpais" (March 1969), Southwest Region, Division of Planning, 35.

²⁶ Clyde R. Durnell, Acting State Director, Bureau of Land Management to Frank Kowski, Regional Director, Southwest Region, National Park Service, September 17, 1970, Southwest Region, Division of Planning.

²⁷ National Park Service, "A Study of Alternatives El Malpais," 35.

²⁸ Oral history interview with David Candelaria, Ice Caves, September 23, 1988, tape on deposit with El Malpais National Monument, Grants, New Mexico.

²⁹ Memorandum, June 4, 1973, Associate Director, Legislation, National Park Service to Director, Southwest Region, "El Malpais-Natural Landmark Reconnaissance," Southwest Region, Division of Planning.