Lincoln Boyhood The Evolution of a Sanctified Landscape A Historic Resource Study of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial, Spencer County, Indiana

7. Summary Description:

In the late nineteenth century, a portion of this property was set aside to commemorate the life of Nancy Hanks Lincoln. Additional parcels of land were acquired in the early to mid-twentieth century, bringing the property to its current size of approximately 428 acres. Also during this period, commemoration of Abraham Lincoln's boyhood in Indiana and his political career received increasing attention. Most of the property's extant resources date from this latter period.

The following architects and landscape architects were involved with designing various features at the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial:

Historic Resources

In 1994, an updated inventory of historic resources on the property was undertaken. A number of the resources included in the inventory were either not specifically mentioned or were not described in the original National Register nomination. They are as follows:

1.) Culverts (1927-1931) — Dry-laid stone facing tile drains, throughout the property. Architect: Donald B. Johnston.

2.) Stone Pillars (1932-1938) — Mortared pillars with battered sides were installed near the state highway; these measured 8 feet in height and were 4 feet square. Similar pillars were located at the main parking lot, and measured 5 feet, three inches in height and were 3 feet square. Presently two of the pillars are extant at the park entrance along the state highway.

3.) Spencer County Memorial (1917) — Commemorated the location of the Lincoln cabin site. The eight-foot tall marker was installed in 1917 in the Lincoln City schoolyard. In 1934, it was relocated to the Trail of Twelve Stones when the present Cabin Site Memorial was constructed.

4.) Studebaker Marker (1879) — P.E. Studebaker, vice president of the Studebaker Corporation, donated a marble tombstone, which remains the official marker of Nancy Hanks Lincoln's grave. It stands approximately two feet in height on a marble base. The lancet-shaped monument is made of Italian marble and inscribed with "Nancy Hanks |Lincoln | Mother of President | Lincoln | Died Oct 5, A.D. 1818 | Aged 35 years | Erected by a friend of her martyred son 1879." Around this same time, local residents also raised money to install an ornamental iron fence around the graves of both Nancy Hanks Lincoln and Nancy Brooner. This fence has since been removed.

5.) Culver Stone (1902) — Originally located next to Nancy Hanks Lincoln's grave, it was relocated to the Trail of Twelve Stones in 1933. The marker measures 4 feet by 3 feet, 4 inches by 2 feet, three inches. It rests upon a stone base measuring 4 feet, 6 inches by 6 feet. The stone is inscribed as follows: "Nancy Hanks Lincoln | In Memoriam | This Stone from Lincoln's Tomb in Springfield, Illinois | was Presented by a Grateful People in Contribution to his | Mother."

6.) Lincoln Spring Marker (1961-1963) — This simple marker was installed by the National Park Service at the location of the spring that provided the Lincoln family with their fresh water supply.

7.) State Highway Right-of-Way Marker (1931-1933) — Located south of the entry road to the Memorial, this marker measures 1 foot tall and 4 inches thick.

8.) State Road Culvert (1850-1920) — Located on the original road alignment, this is a tile drain measuring 20 feet by 18 inches.

9.) Old Lincoln Trace — This road followed the township line between Carter and Clay townships. The highway was removed when the memorial was established as a state park during the 1930s, but the alignment still is visible through the reforested landscape.

Historic Landscape Design

The present appearance of the cultural landscape at the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial is due in large part to the efforts of a group of landscape architects and architects who completed a variety of projects at the site between the late 1920s and the 1940s. In 1927, Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., developed a landscape plan for the memorial at the request of the managing agency, the Indiana Lincoln Union (ILU). Olmsted's plan designated a sacred space that he termed the "Sanctuary," which included the grave of Nancy Hanks Lincoln and the cabin site, both of which had been identified as a result of earlier preservation efforts (see Section 8). To clear this space of distractions, Olmsted called for the removal of most of the buildings associated with Lincoln City, as well as ornamental shrubs and other plants that had been placed around the grave, and decorative elements such as an iron fence with gilded statuary. His conceptual plan combined an allee, which would serve to frame the primary vista toward the hilltop cemetery, with a cross-axis created by a parking plaza and flagpole next to state highway 162, which was located south of the cemetery. This design is largely extant within the extant cultural landscape.

The ILU accepted Olmsted's plan, but hired landscape architect Donald Johnston to complete some modifications and supervise construction activities, which began in 1929. During this period, most of the buildings associated with Lincoln City were demolished, including the 1904 school house, a church, general store, hotel, and numerous residences. The streets and alleys were filled and graded and corrective measures were taken against eroded hillsides. Between the cemetery and the state highway, the existing topography was almost entirely regraded to its present configuration. Over 17,000 cubic yards of earth were moved during the course of the project. [1]

The extant stone walls were erected around the perimeter of the parking plaza, and stone pylons were erected along the highway. Four of the pylons remain extant and are located directly east of the parking plaza; these pylons flanked two unpaved parking areas (which are now revegetated). These two parking areas were not part of Olmsted's original plan, but were carried out under the direction of state landscape architect Edson Nott, who succeeded Johnston as the project manager. The parking areas were deliberately designed to appear like meadows when they were not in use. According to McEnaney, these areas, along with Olmsted's main parking plaza, created a sequence of open and enclosed spaces that created a transition between rural Spencer County and the formal landscape design at the memorial. Sequencing of open and enclosed spaces and large and small-scale outdoor spaces was a typical feature of late nineteenth and early twentieth century landscape designs. The approach originated in the English Landscape School in the mid-nineteenth century, but was adopted in the United States by pioneering landscape architect Andrew Jackson Downing. [2]

The cemetery has not been significantly altered since Olmsted's plan was implemented. In 1944, the flagpole was moved from the plaza to a terrace directly south of the cemetery. In 1988, the original stone steps that provided access to the terrace were replaced and new iron handrails were installed. The terrace was accessed by a pair of trails that flanked the allee. At the top of the terrace stairs, the trails converge at the center of the terrace, an arrangement that appears to have been the work of Nott rather than Olmsted. A single gravel path provides a direct route to the flagpole (moved to its present location in 1944), and then continues to the cemetery. The allee itself has been virtually unaltered since it was completed in 1932, but for the size and condition of the flanking vegetation.

The vicinity of the plaza has witnessed several changes since Olmsted's plan was completed. The relocation of the state highway in 1964 resulted in the removal of the eastern vehicular entrance to the memorial and obliterated one of the two primary orientation points for the memorial. The symmetry and views down the east-west axis also were irrevocably altered, and the original cruciform arrangement was lost when the roadbed was removed and the corridor was revegetated. The plaza itself has seen few alterations, with all of the original stone walls and benches, walkways, and red oak trees intact. The island originally featured the flagpole (which was moved to the terrace in 1944), and its landscaping has been altered several times over the years.

Olmsted also suggested recreating a portion of the native forested landscape that would have been present at the time the Lincoln family settled in Spencer County in 1816. The forest was symbolic of the rugged character of the area during the pioneer period, and was the only aspect of the environment in which the Lincolns dwelt that could be "reproduced without sham or falsehood." [3] Almost 40,000 native trees and shrubs were planted between 1930 and 1935. Much of this reforested landscape is intact, although some plantings in the immediate vicinity of the allee have been revised over the years. Since the 1930s, efforts have continued to control invasive plant species and provide for the continued presence of native trees, shrubs, and plants.

The extant Trail of Twelve Stones was added in 1933-1934. Not a part of Olmsted's original plan, this feature instead was the concept of J. I. Holcomb, who served as president of the ILU. Edson Nott oversaw the trail's design and landscaping. The wooded trail served to link the cemetery to the cabin site, which had not been done previously. It also had an important symbolic function as an allegorical illustration of the different stages and events of Lincoln's life, including the tragic loss of his mother. The trail features a collection of stones taken from places that were associated with Lincoln, such as the building that housed his law office in Springfield, Illinois, and the White House. Each stone was placed upon a small base with a metal plaque that identified its origin. The displays were envisioned as small shrines to Lincoln, and stone benches were placed alongside several to provide visitors with an opportunity to rest and reflect. All of the stones are extant, but some are believed to have been moved from their original locations during the development of the Living History Farm in 1968. A number of stone culverts constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) during the mid-1930s are extant, along with some later (and unobtrusive) culverts and water bars. [4]

The cabin site memorial was the final component of the initial landscape development, but was not a part of Olmsted's original plan. Instead, like the Trail of Twelve Stones, it was undertaken at the behest of the ILU and was designed by architect Thomas Hibben, with Edson Nott again contributing some modifications. In 1934, the site was excavated by the CCC and hearthstones were uncovered about 18 inches below the existing grade. These were removed and were displayed in a steel and glass case at the site until 1946, when they were moved to the State Library Building in Indianapolis. The extant memorial consists of bronzed log sills and hearthstones enclosed by a limestone retaining wall. Flagstone walkways originally surrounded the perimeter of the retaining wall, but these were removed in 1968; the paths now are gravel with brick edging. A massive stone bench built by the CCC remains at the edge of the cabin site memorial, while the other benches were moved to the parking plaza over the years. [5] Development of the Living History Farm in 1968 resulted in the removal of a substantial amount of vegetation, thus irrevocably changing the viewshed from the cabin site memorial.

A second major construction phase began at the memorial with the erection of the Memorial Building and Court between 1938 and 1944. The ILU sought input on the building's design from Olmsted and Hibben, but state architect Edson Nott and National Park Service architect Richard Bishop were responsible for the final rendition. As originally constructed, it featured two memorial halls, one of which was dedicated to Abraham Lincoln and the other to Nancy Hanks Lincoln, and these were connected by a semi-circular cloister. The front (north) wall of the cloister featured a series of carved stone panels that depicted allegorical scenes related to Abraham Lincoln's life. According to McEnaney, Bishop and Nott created a hierarchy of spaces along the progression from the plaza, through the court, and into the halls and cloister. The Memorial Building project was completed in 1945 under Bishop's supervision. Based on plans drawn up by Nott, an extensive landscaping project around the Memorial Building was undertaken the following year. It included the installation of walkways around the building and planting of native shrubs and perennials. In 1965, the National Park Service decided to enclose the cloister's front (north) wall and added a wing to the south side to create a museum space and administrative offices. The alterations affected the linear relationship of the flagpole terrace, allee, and Memorial Building, and changed the cloister's function from that of a transition space to the primary indoor space for visitors. The court on the north side of the building was altered by the addition of a central walkway, which divided the space into four symmetrical planting beds. In 1979, the brick walls around the court were replaced with sandstone walls. [6]

Recent Alterations

The park's current overall appearance has seen few major changes since completion of the addition to the Memorial Building in the mid-1960s. In 1986, the iron gate that once marked the entrance to the park was removed from storage and placed at the east end of the plaza. The most recent alterations have included the replanting of the beds around the allee and removal of an isolated section of State Highway 162 in 1993. This removal included replanting the former east arm of the original cross-axial design with native trees. Several picnic tables were added to the space as well. [7]

8. Statement of Significance

The Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial is historically significant for its association with the early life of Abraham Lincoln and as the final resting place of Nancy Hanks Lincoln. Furthermore, the property retains a high level of integrity with regard to Olmsted's and Hibben's landscape designs, and Richard Bishop's Memorial Building is an important contributing element to the property's architectural significance. Finally, the property is significant for its association with the development of historic preservation theory over the course of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It began as a shrine to Nancy Hanks Lincoln and, by extension, the cult of motherhood that characterized the Victorian era. During the 1930s, the memorial was transformed to commemorate Lincoln and his lifetime of accomplishments. Thirty years later, the site's programs were expanded to include a parallel interpretive theme with the construction of the Living History Farm. The influences of each interpretive theme are clearly visible upon the extant cultural landscape and contribute to our understanding of the constantly evolving cultural and social phenomena of memorializing important personages in American history.

The Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial originally was listed in the National Register in 1976 for its significance as the boyhood home of Abraham Lincoln and as the final resting place of his mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln. The nomination also noted the property's significance as a Fredrick Law Olmsted, Jr., landscape design. The classically inspired Memorial Building with its bas relief sculptures contributed to the architectural significance as well.

Documentation of the Memorial Site

More recent efforts by the National Park Service to document the history of this site, its administration as a national memorial, and its cultural resources have included the following studies:

• Forest Frost and Scott Stadler. Intensive Archaeological Resource Inventory of Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial, Spencer County, Indiana, 1997-1999: Results and Recommendations (MWAC Technical Report No. 61). Lincoln, Nebr.: National Park Service, Midwest Archaeological Center, 2000.

• Marla McEnaney. A Noble Avenue: Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial Cultural Landscape Report. Omaha, Nebr.: Midwest Regional Office, National Park Service, 2001.

• Lena Sweeten, Harrison Stamm Gowdy, and Patrick O'Bannon. The Evolution of a Sanctified Landscape: A Historic Resource Study of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial, Spencer County, Indiana. Prepared by HRA Gray & Pape, LLC. Prepared for the National Park Service, Midwest Regional Office, Omaha, Nebraska. 2002.

These projects represent an ongoing initiative on the part of the National Park Service to reach a thorough understanding of the Lincoln Memorial's evolution over the course of more than a century of development, as well as to develop an extensive foundation of knowledge concerning the history of the site prior to its designation as a memorial.

These recent documentation undertakings also have demonstrated that the property remains historically significant as the site of the farmstead where Abraham Lincoln lived from 1816 through 1830 and as the location of Nancy Hanks Lincoln's interment in 1818, despite the fact that no features (such as a dwelling or outbuilding) that date from this period are extant. The historic landscape design and the extant architectural resources generally date from the early to mid-twentieth century. A recent assessment of these aspects of the property demonstrates that they are equally important to the property's historic and architectural significance.

Furthermore, study undertaken in 2001 has shown that the property also is significant for its association with the development of historic preservation theory from the late nineteenth through the late twentieth century. By the 1870s, the popular perception of Abraham Lincoln began a gradual process in which the slain president was elevated to an almost mythic status. Sites associated with his life grew to be popular destination points for tourists and souvenir seekers. The farmstead where he spent his formative years became one of many memorials, along with that of his birthplace in Hodgenville, Kentucky, and his law office in Springfield, Illinois, that were established in the half-century following his death. The Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial commemorates the period Abraham Lincoln spent in southern Indiana and also includes the final resting place of his mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln. The memorial has passed through three interpretation phases. It began as a shrine to Nancy Hanks Lincoln and, by extension, the cult of motherhood that characterized the Victorian era. During the 1930s, the memorial was transformed to commemorate Lincoln and his lifetime of accomplishments. Thirty years later, the site's programs were expanded to include a parallel interpretive theme with the construction of the Living History Farm.

The Lincoln Period of Occupation

In late 1816, the Lincoln family left Kentucky for their new homestead in Indiana. At that time the family included Thomas Lincoln, age 38, Nancy Hanks Lincoln, age 32, their daughter Sarah, age 9, and their son Abraham, age 7. The farm was located near the Little Pigeon community, where the Carter, Grigsby, Gentry, Wright, and Gordon families were among those already in residence. The Pigeon Baptist Church was organized in 1816 and a frame meeting house constructed within four years in Section 7 of Clay Township, almost due south of the Lincoln farm. Troy was the nearest trading center and a gristmill also was located there. George Huffman operated a mill on Anderson River, about ten miles north of Troy and sixteen miles west of the Lincoln farm. In 1818, Noah Gordon built a grist mill less than two miles from the Lincolns that the family used as well. That same year, a schoolhouse was established on the Gordon farm. The schoolhouse clearly was needed; since within a four-mile radius there were 90 children under the age of 7 and another 48 between the ages of 7 and 17. By 1820, at least 40 families had settled within five miles of the Lincolns, with an average of three families per section. Most of these settlers were from Kentucky, and a few, such as the Carters and Gordons, even hailed from Hardin County, where the Lincolns had last resided. Nancy Lincoln's aunt and uncle, Elizabeth and Thomas Sparrow, moved to the area shortly after the Lincolns arrived, and stayed with them for a brief time. [8]

One of the first tasks Thomas completed was erection of a single-room log house that measured around 18 feet by 20 feet. [9] Thomas probably was assisted by several of his neighbors, who would have had time to help with the chore since the harvest season had passed. According to Warren, approximately forty logs would have been used to construct the house. A large stone was placed at each corner to serve as a foundation and the notched logs were placed directly atop these. After the walls were raised, a loft area was built using smaller logs, and the joists and ridge pole set in position. The joists were sheathed with half-inch thick clapboards to make a watertight covering. Door, window, and fireplace openings were cut in the walls and a stick chimney was built on the outside of the cabin. All this construction could be accomplished in about four days. Chinking the openings between the logs and adding a floor made of puncheons followed soon after. [10]

The following spring, the Lincolns planted their first crop, which probably included corn and smaller amounts of wheat, flax, and cotton. Corn was both a food source and a cash crop, while wheat, flax, and cotton could be used to provide needed materials for the pioneer household. A kitchen garden with vegetables such as melons, squash, pumpkins, and potatoes also probably was planted to provide variety to the family diet. After that year's harvest had been completed, Thomas undertook the 60-mile journey to the Federal land office at Vincennes to secure title to this land. William Whitman and Noah Gordon, Thomas's nearest neighbors, accompanied him on the trip. All three made official land entries on 15 October 1817. Thomas's were for two tracts of 80 acres apiece, located in the southwest quarter of Section 32. [11]

Just under a year later, Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness (brucellosis). This malady is caused by the poisonous snakeroot, which was consumed by foraging cows. Its name indicates that pioneers were aware that the disease was somehow transmitted by cow's milk, but they did not know by what process the milk became tainted. Entire families and sometimes communities could be ravaged by the illness. Such was the case at the Lincoln farmstead. Nancy's uncle, Thomas Sparrow, was the first to fall ill and die. Within a matter of days, he was followed by his wife, Elizabeth, a neighbor, Mrs. Peter Brooner, and finally Nancy Lincoln, who died on 5 October 1818. Thomas built coffins for all four of the deceased. All were taken to the crest of a hill located approximately fifteen hundred feet south of the cabin site and interred. The graves are believed to have been marked with fieldstones at the head and foot, and Thomas may have carved Nancy's initials in her headstone. Such simple markers were the only ones available to families on Indiana's frontier. [12]

At the time of their mother's death, Sarah Lincoln was eleven years of age, while Abraham was nine. Thomas Lincoln soon married again., choosing for his wife Sarah (Sally) Bush Johnston, a widow, whom he and Nancy had known when they lived in Elizabethtown, Kentucky. They were wed in December 1819, in Hardin County. Sally had three children by her first husband, Elizabeth, John D., and Matilda, all of whom accompanied her and Thomas back to Indiana. They arrived at the farm in early 1820. The household at this date consisted of Thomas (aged 42), Sally (32), Dennis Hanks (21), who had been a ward of the Sparrows, Sarah (13), Elizabeth Johnston (13), Abraham (11), John D. Johnston (10), and Matilda Johnston (9). Dennis and Elizabeth married the following year and set up their own household nearby, while the rest of the family members remained at Thomas's farm. [13]

Following Sarah's arrival in Indiana, the Lincoln family appears to have stabilized and applied the lion's share of their energies to improving their farmstead. Their efforts apparently succeeded, in that the family held a social standing equal to that of their neighbors, and were exceeded economically only by the Gentry family. By 1825, Thomas, Abraham, and John Johnston had cleared twenty acres of land and brought it under cultivation, generally on slopes surrounding the cabin site. They planted about half of the acreage in corn and the remainder in wheat and oats, along with about an acre of grass. Their livestock included sheep, hogs, and several head of cattle. By the late 1820s, the amount of cultivated acreage doubled to forty, and Thomas had also acquired an additional twenty acres of land immediately west of his original holding from his neighbor, David Casebier. This land included a spring, a valuable feature for a pioneer farmstead. In 1827, Thomas relinquished one-half of his original quarter-section and applied credit to the remaining eighty acres. This shrewd action was taken under the auspices of the Relief Act of 1821, which allowed overextended farmers to retain ownership of at least a portion of their holdings. Nearly all the Lincolns' neighbors took advantage of the act, because it allowed them to relinquish ownership of poor and undeveloped land for the same price that the better land had cost. [14]

At the same time the Lincolns were improving their property, the remoteness and isolation of northern Spencer County began to ease as a result of denser settlement and improved transportation. Located at the confluence of the Anderson and Ohio rivers, Troy remained the principal shipping center for local residents. The Anderson River was the largest stream in southern Indiana between the Blue and Wabash rivers. The advent of steamboats during the 1810s enhanced Troy's status as a trading center, and provided local farmers with a convenient location to bring their agricultural goods for shipment to distant markets. Around 1826, in northern Spencer County, Gideon Romine, Benjamin Romine, and James Gentry opened a general store, which became the nucleus around which the community of Gentryville grew. A post office called Gentry's Store was established, with Romine serving as postmaster. Gentry also operated a cotton gin for a time at this location. To the west another small hamlet, Jonesboro, sprang up in Warrick County at the intersection of the state road leading from Rockport to Bloomington and the state road from Corydon to Boonville. This settlement included a store, a mill, and a blacksmith shop. A tannery operated along the Troy-Vincennes Road, approximately four miles east of the Lincolns' farm. [15]

As the eldest son, Abraham played an important role in assisting with his family's farming, although numerous personal recollections from Abraham's acquaintances and neighbors state that he was far more interested in reading and arithmetic than tilling fields and splitting rails, to the point that his intellectual curiosity reached mythic proportions by the late nineteenth century. The exigencies of frontier life, however, required Abraham to devote much of his time and energy to other pursuits. His formal schooling ended by the time he was sixteen, after which he turned to various means of finding steady employment. He learned basic aspects of the carpentry trade from his father and his skills with an ax helped him earn money splitting rails; typically, a flat rate of 25 cents per day was paid, with a skilled woodsman capable of splitting up to 400 rails a day. In 1826, working with his cousin, Dennis Hanks, Abraham cut cordwood for passing steamboats. He later began working for James Taylor, who owned a packinghouse and ferry at the confluence of the Anderson and Ohio rivers. For a salary of six dollars per month, Abraham operated the ferry across the Anderson River. [16]

In the spring of 1827, Abraham returned to his family's farm to help with planting the spring crops. He also began to work for James Gentry at his country store. The same year, his elder sister, Sarah, became engaged to Aaron Grigsby, son of one of the well-established families in northern Spencer County. Sarah died the following winter in childbirth, a tragic event that had a profound effect on Abraham. His habit of melancholic brooding was exacerbated, and the trait became one of his most recognized characteristics in later years. Toward the end of 1828, Abraham had the opportunity to join the crew of a flatboat being sent down the river to New Orleans by his employer, James Gentry. This occasion marked the first time Abraham left Indiana outside the company of his family. The trip required about three months, and Abraham was home by March 1829, in time once again to help his family with the year's spring planting. Life as a frontier farmer held less and less appeal to the young man, however, as evidenced by his growing interests in politics and the proceedings of local courts. These avocations were encouraged by Abraham's friendships with local men, such as James Gentry, William Jones, and William Davis. Their shops were popular gathering places where the political issues of the day were discussed in a lively fashion. [17]

Throughout this period, the Lincolns continued to occupy the dwelling that Thomas and his neighbors had constructed in 1817; according to Warren, the nearby original shelter that Thomas erected in 1816 also remained standing at this time. In 1829, Thomas and Abraham began work on a larger house built of hewn logs. It was situated on a knoll near the original dwelling, and was approximately 50 feet above and 150 yards north of the road. The 1817 cabin originally stood on line with the east side of the new two-room house, but was moved some distance to the south after 1830. The 1829 dwelling measured around 12 feet by 24 feet and remained standing until 1874, when it began to be demolished, with pieces sold as relics to tourists in search of mementos associated with Abraham Lincoln's life. [18] A contemporary of the Lincolns, Nat Grigsby, described the farmstead as he saw it in 1865:

Went to the Lincoln farm about one and a half miles east of Gentryville, and a little north. The house is a one story hewed log one, porch in front; it is not the house that [Lincoln] lived in, though he built it. The old house — the first and second are gone — fronts south, chimney at east end, has two rooms, the east one and west one, stands on a knoll or knob about 50 feet above the road and about 150 yards north of the road. On the Gentryville road leading to the Hoffman [sic] Mills. [19]

The Lincolns, however, never occupied the 1829 house, but instead divested themselves of their farmstead and moved to Illinois. Their decision was partially influenced by letters from family friend John Hanks, who lived in Macon County, Illinois, and reported enthusiastically on the remarkable fertility of the land. Both of Sally Johnston Lincoln's daughters and their husbands expressed great interest in moving to Illinois, and Sally persuaded Thomas that the entire family should go. In February 1830, Thomas sold to Charles Grigsby his 80-acre farmstead for the sum of $125; he also sold the 20-acre tract he had acquired a decade earlier from David Casebier, although records of that transaction have been lost. The family liquidated their livestock and crops, selling approximately 100 hogs and 400 to 500 bushels of corn, and departed for Illinois. [20]

Grigsby owned the property for five years, then sold it to Edley Brown in December, 1835. Ownership changed hands twice more in the next three years, from Brown to James Sally in 1837, and from Sally to Joseph Gentry in 1838. Gentry retained the property until 1850, then sold the north forty acres to Elijah Winkler. Three years later, Gentry sold the south forty acres to William Oskins. Within six years, the latter parcel again was acquired by the Gentry family when James Gentry, Jr., purchased it from Oskins. [21] Throughout these exchanges of ownership, it is presumed that the land continued to be cultivated or at least used for pasturage. No one is believed to have lived at the Lincoln farm, however, as the 1817 cabin had been removed by 1865 and later descriptions of the 1829 house indicate it had been left to deteriorate for a number of years. Abraham Lincoln himself never returned to the area after his departure with his family in 1830.

In 1871, James Gentry sold the former Lincoln farmstead to John Shillito, Henry Lewis, Robert Mitchell, and Charles West. These four speculators from Cincinnati intended to plat a community along the Cincinnati, Rockport & Southwestern's new line. The post office originally was called Kercheval, undoubtedly after R. T. Kercheval, who had rescued the company from bankruptcy in 1874. By 1881, the town's name had been changed to Lincoln City, in recognition of its proximity to the old Lincoln farm. The community had several stores, including those maintained by James Gentry, Jr., William Gaines, W. J. Chinn, and Walter Howard. S. N. Hilt operated a blacksmith shop, while T. N. Robinson kept a hotel. The village also had a saloon and train station. [22]

The community prospered for a time, with as many as twelve passenger trains passing through on a daily basis. The railroad company constructed a fourteen-acre lake to furnish a water supply and the site also was used for recreational activities, but few traces remained of the forest that had covered much of the area when the Lincolns arrived in 1816. At its height, Lincoln City supported two hotels, four stores, two restaurants, a livery barn, and a tavern. [23]

Evolution of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial

From the 1830s to the 1870s, the Lincoln homestead was transferred from landowner to landowner. The dwellings the Lincolns constructed during their tenure fell into disrepair. Many of the area's original settlers moved away or died, leaving fewer and fewer people to visit and care for the cemetery where Lincoln's mother lay buried. By the time Lincoln was assassinated on 15 April 1865, the cemetery had been all but forgotten. His death rekindled a local interest in the Lincolns' Indiana connections, however, and efforts began to locate the family homestead and cemetery. By this date, the 1817 cabin had disintegrated, while the remnants of the 1829 cabin, which the Lincolns never occupied, became a popular spot for tourists to be photographed, at least until it was literally pulled to pieces by souvenir hunters. [24]

A group of twenty-four local residents reportedly convened to determine the correct location of the pioneer cemetery. They included John Richardson and descendants of Nancy Brooner, who died shortly before Nancy Hanks Lincoln. After gathering at the former Lincoln farmstead, this group agreed that the cemetery was situated in a corner of a field then owned by John Carter. In July 1874, a story appeared in the local newspaper stating that the grave of Nancy Lincoln was unmarked. Moved to redress the shortcoming, Professor Joseph D. Armstrong, editor and superintendent of schools, placed a sandstone marker at the grave in the fall of 1874. [25] This marker, however, was destroyed within only a few years by souvenir hunters who chipped away pieces to take with them. The vandalism made it apparent to local leaders that the site was becoming a popular memorial site and thus prompted the first efforts at preservation.

In 1879, P.E. Studebaker, vice president of the Studebaker Corporation, presented a contemporary marker to the site. This marble marker remains the official marker of Nancy Hanks Lincoln's grave. It stands approximately two feet in height on a marble base. The lancet-shaped monument is made of Italian marble and inscribed with "Nancy Hanks |Lincoln | Mother of President | Lincoln | Died Oct 5, A.D. 1818 | Aged 35 years | Erected by a friend of her martyred son 1879." Around this same time, Civil War General John Veatch of Rockport coordinated a local fundraising effort to pay for an ornamental iron fence around the graves of both Nancy Hanks Lincoln and Nancy Brooner. [26]

Preservation efforts such as these were akin to similar undertakings associated with other former American presidents, including Ann Pamela Cunningham's work to save George Washington's Mount Vernon and the Ladies' Hermitage Association's acquisition of Andrew Jackson's home, The Hermitage. These movements were part of a larger search for national identity taking place in the United States, with Americans focusing on the deeds of great leaders for inspiration. [27] The establishment of historical associations ranked among the first manifestations of this process. On an ad hoc basis, the organizations also established the first guidelines concerning the types of sites considered worthy of preservation, who should be responsible for their maintenance, and how they should be interpreted. A critical underpinning to these directives was the assumption that private citizens, rather than government, should undertake the care of historic sites. Equally important was the notion that sites associated with military and political figures properly must be treated as shrines or icons. The initial efforts to preserve the Nancy Hanks Lincoln site clearly falls within this period of preservation theory.

The gravesite became symbolic of motherly devotion to one of America's greatest political leaders. The emphasis on a "sainted mother" also played into the cult of motherhood that was popularized in the literature of the early and mid-nineteenth century. A central tenet of the cult of motherhood was that women were responsible for perfecting an alternative to the commercial world and providing children (especially sons) with a moral education. [28] Domestic writings and sermons across the country popularized these ideas. Collected decades after the fact, oral histories concerning Nancy Hanks Lincoln's death clearly show the influences of this movement. With her supposed dying words, she asked her children "to be good and kind to their father, to one another, and to the world." She also reportedly expressed a hope that the children would live as they had been taught by her, to love, revere, and worship God. Many of the oral histories taken in the late nineteenth century describe Nancy Hanks Lincoln as "a woman of great good sense and morality." Her nephew, Dennis Hanks, offered this description in 1865: "Mrs. Lincoln always taught Abe, goodness, kindness, read the good Bible to him, taught him to read and to spell, taught him sweetness and benevolence as well." [29]

By the late nineteenth century, the emotional power of the cult of motherhood had begun to fade and popular interest in the grave of Abraham Lincoln's mother waned. By 1897, the gravesite again was neglected, although the adjacent cemetery remained in use by local residents. In response, Governor James Mount helped form the Nancy Hanks Lincoln Memorial Association (NHLMA), which was charged with raising money for the site's maintenance. Initial fundraising efforts were less than successful, with only $56.52 raised by 1900. That year, however, the Spencer County Commissioners deeded 16 acres of land to the NHLMA, giving the organization full control over the site, while Robert Todd Lincoln donated $1000 toward the maintenance of the grave. Other changes included the addition of a second memorial stone in 1902. The stone was donated by J. L. Culver of Springfield, Illinois, and stood outside of the 1879 iron fence. The inscribed stone rested on a substantial stone base and measured approximately three feet tall and one foot deep. Its inscription is illegible from the available photographs. [30]

In the early 1900s, the NHLMA also began plans to turn the site into a park. NHLMA constructed a large picnic shelter near the cemetery and drilled a well to supply fresh water. Local citizens soon complained that the site was not being maintained properly, with visitors leaving picnic trash and carelessly walking on graves. In 1907, the General Assembly responded by creating a Board of Commissioners to care for the site. Some of the first steps to improve the site included construction of a new fence around the entire sixteen-acre site and establishment of a monumental driveway between the grave and the nearby road, which was then known as Lincoln Trace. Landscape architect J. C. Meyerburg of Tell City designed a gated entry featuring an eagle and lion statuary to highlight the driveway. Dead trees also were removed and ornamental plantings were added. [31]

In 1917, preservation efforts began to expand beyond Nancy Lincoln's grave, when local residents attempted to locate the site of Thomas Lincoln's cabin. Preceding these efforts had been much discussion concerning the actual location of the cabin and whether the dwelling remained standing in 1865, when tourists began making pilgrimages to the site. [32] This alleged site was located in the schoolyard of the Lincoln City graded school, which was erected in 1904. Approximately twenty people gathered here in 1917, at which time they located three or four stones and some bits of crockery, thus substantiating in the popular mind that the actual hearth from the cabin had been located. On April 28, 1917, a stone marker was erected in the schoolyard and read "Spencer County Memorial to Abraham Lincoln who lived on this spot from 1816-1830." [33]

The enlarged commemorative project, now known as Nancy Hanks Lincoln Memorial Park, continued to attract visitors, and local citizens remained displeased with the behavior of visitors. Finally, in 1923, Col. Richard Lieber, who served as Director of the Indiana Department of Conservation, determined that designation of the memorial site as a state park was in keeping with his department's plan for developing a statewide system of parks. The State legislature created the Lincoln Memorial Commission to replace the park's Board of Commissioners as administrators of the site. The organization received a $5000 appropriation to erect a suitable memorial. In 1925, the State acquired the cemetery and a surrounding tract of land, totaling 60 acres; this was augmented in 1929 when Frank C. Ball of Muncie, Indiana, bought an additional 29 acres and donated it to the state. [34] Indiana Governor Ed Jackson also appointed 125 people to the Indiana Lincoln Union (ILU), which was to be responsible for raising funds to create a new memorial to Abraham Lincoln. The group was led by some of the most prominent professionals in Indiana, including Anne Studebaker Carlisle and Paul V. Brown. Thus began the second phase in the site's interpretive development, as this board represented the instigation of corporate philanthropy in the maintenance and interpretation of historic sites, a trend that was occurring nationwide at numerous historic sites.

During this phase of development, the park began to be transformed into a carefully designed landscape intended to convey a specific emotional experience. In December 1926, the ILU invited nationally known landscape architect Fredrick Law Olmsted, Jr., and architect Thomas Hibben to the site. Olmsted's services were contracted to assess the existing commemorative landscape and to create a preliminary plan that would clearly define future development. [35] The two architects intended to simplify and rationalize the park's plan while remaining true to the original mission of developing a monument to Abraham Lincoln's greatness. In so doing, they created the foundation for the memorial's development throughout the remainder of the twentieth century.

Olmsted's first assessment of the site concluded that it contained too many distractions. He stated that the combination of utilitarian structures, such as the road, railroad, and picnic shelter, along with the cast iron fences, gilded lions, and exotic shrubs distracted attention from the peaceful surroundings of the cabin site and Nancy Lincoln's grave. To remedy the situation, Olmsted sought to simplify the site and create what he termed "the Sanctuary." [36]

Olmsted's plan removed most of the elements that had been added to the park over the preceding fifty years. The project was strikingly similar to preservation activities elsewhere in the United States, such as at Colonial Williamsburg, in which major elements of the existing built environment were stripped away to create a visitor's experience that would satisfy contemporary tastes. The result was a divorce of the park site from its historic context and the creation of a frozen moment in time that seemed to represent an experience visitors would accept as authentic. Such a selective vision of the past is characteristic of efforts to interpret historic events, with the popular audience and scholars alike engaging in a deliberate selection and evaluation of past events, experiences, and processes. [37] At the Lincoln park, this process of "reconstructing" the past included removal of most of the structures associated with the small town of Lincoln City that stood near the cabin site, as well as the removal of ornamental shrubs and other plants located at the cemetery. The only monument not removed was the Studebaker grave marker. Other efforts under the direction of Olmsted included the Lincoln Memorial Commission's acquisition of 428 acres, which they reforested with native trees and shrubs, and the ILU's plans to move the old Lincoln trace that bisected the cabin and gravesite. All of this work resulted in the creation of a blank slate from which to begin a new effort at memorializing Abraham Lincoln. Olmsted sought to create a landscape that was monumental and would stimulate visitors to have "their own inspiring thoughts and emotions about Lincoln." [38]

Olmsted's landscape design for the Lincoln park was derived from the City Beautiful Movement of the early twentieth century. This movement evolved out of a relationship between architects, landscape architects, and urban planners and involved creating picturesque landscapes with carefully controlled views framed by naturalistic features that were either part of the original landscape or man-made. A central element of the Olmsted plan was the creation of a primary vista known as the allee, with a cruciform arrangement that had the United States flag at its center. The cruciform arrangement provided for east-west and north-south traffic along with a strong spiritual image. Although religious symbolism imbued Olmsted's plan, his only overt reference to this was in the use of the religious word "Sanctuary." [39]

The ILU added additional elements that emphasized the religious context of the site, especially through references to Nancy Lincoln as the "sainted Mother," while the site itself was "sacred soil." Another aspect of commemorating this sacred quality was the effort to preserve the cabin site in a way deemed appropriate by the ILU. The Lincoln City schoolhouse had been constructed near the site in 1904 and thirteen years later, a marker was erected that identified the location as the cabin site. Following a major fundraising drive, the ILU purchased the school property and demolished the building and other surrounding structures. After deciding a cabin reconstruction would be inappropriate, the organization hired architect Thomas Hibben to design an appropriate marker. The extant bronzed sill logs, fireplace, and hearthstones were the centerpiece of his design; these were accented with masonry retaining walls built of Bedford limestone, stone benches, and flagstone walkways. The symbolism of the hearth, as the "altar of the home," was in keeping with the ILU's predilection for treating the Lincoln Memorial as holy ground. [40]

Also during the early to mid-1930s, a state park encompassing the Lincoln site was established. In order to undertake the state park plan and Olmsted's landscape design, Donald Johnston, the state landscape architect, was appointed to oversee implementation of these two separate but interconnected projects. Between 1929 and 1933, much of the memorial was constructed according to Olmsted's plan, although Johnston slightly revised the designs for the allee and plaza. The allee consisted of a central lawn flanked by gravel walks, which were lined on the outside by dogwood trees, tulip poplars, and sycamore trees. Furthermore, much of Lincoln City's built environment was razed. In addition to the schoolhouse, a restaurant, garage, hotel, church, 11 houses, 7 barns, and 20 outbuildings were removed from the community during the first phase of development. The 1909 ornamental fence and statuary around Nancy Lincoln's grave also were removed. Further work at the memorial included grading the site, constructing a boundary fence, relocating state highway 162, adding a drainage system and reservoir, and reforesting the grounds based on notes taken during the 1805 Federal land survey. Working with the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the State planted 22,441 native trees and 15,218 shrubs at the memorial. CCC Camp 1543 also was responsible for developing the nearby Lincoln State Park, where they planted 57,000 trees and 3,200 shrubs between July 1933 and June 1934. [41] In 1931, the concept for a Trail of Twelve Stones was developed, and installation of the stones was completed in 1934. The state also integrated the cabin site into the rest of the memorial by constructing a "Boyhood Trail" that led to the family cemetery.

The Trail of Twelve Stones was not part of the original Olmsted plan nor was the final plan for commemorating the cabin site. The one-mile Trail of Twelve Stones was suggested by J.I. Holcomb, president of the ILU. Holcomb proposed that a collection of stones from places associated with Abraham Lincoln should be gathered and placed along a trail linking Nancy Lincoln's grave and the cabin site. These stones were installed in 1934 and ILU members added bronze plaques in 1935. The stones include one from Lincoln's birthplace in Kentucky and another from the William Jones store in Jonesboro. Another stone came from the Western Sun and Advertiser building in Vincennes, Indiana, and a stone was taken from the Berry-Lincoln Store in New Salem, Illinois. There are two bricks from Lexington, Kentucky, a marker commemorating his first Inaugural address, and a stone from the Old Capitol in Springfield, Illinois. Additional relics include a rock from Gettysburg and stones from the White House, the Anderson Cottage Soldiers Home, and the Petersen House where Lincoln died. The introduction of this Trail of Twelve Stones marks a change in the interpretation of the site, as the park's mission evolved from acting as a shrine to motherhood to a memorial to Lincoln himself. Nevertheless, the underlying religious tones that had characterized the park also continued to be expressed. A 1934 newspaper article entitled "Stones Taken from Scenes Vitally Linked with Life of Lincoln Made into Shrines at Nancy Hanks Park" described the stones as "shrines" where "pilgrims" could rest. [42]

The introduction of an element such as the Trail of Twelve Stones was in keeping with early twentieth century preservation practices, which often involved creating a monument for the sake of the monument, instead of focusing on actual historic events at a site. The trend continued with the development of the cabin site. In 1931, the site had no landscaping and was located in a clearing. It featured only the exposed hearthstones and the simple plaque placed at the site in 1917 by the Spencer County Commissioners. In 1931, the plaque was moved to the Trail of Twelve Stones. The Indiana Lincoln Union had previously decided that reconstruction of the cabin was not an option since there were no records of the cabin's actual appearance. Instead, architect Thomas Hibben and ILU president Colonel Richard Lieber developed a variety of models for creation of a memorial from the existing elements. The model selected was described by Hibben as follows:

The log sill is chosen as appropriate to mark the outline of the cabin; the hearth and fireplace are chosen because they have been, since time immemorial, the altar of the home, the center around which all life moved. The entire conception is cased in bronze in order that it may be durable and that it may not in any way seem a reconstruction of the original cabin. [43]

Although the final design was accepted in 1931, the bronze-cast sill logs were not placed in situ until 1935. Paul V. Brown, who served as the Executive Secretary for the ILU, began soliciting bids for the construction work in early 1933. Edwin Pearson's New York City firm submitted a winning bid to manufacture a fireplace, hearth, and five logs for $5,400. They were manufactured in Munich by Pressmann Bauer & Company using the French sand method. [44]

To further memorialize the site, a 42' x 42' limestone wall and plaza with benches were added. The wall measures 1 foot, six inches thick by 4 feet, six inches in height and is constructed to enclose the cabin site. The wall and plaza were meant to enhance the cabin site. Another element was a large bronze sign that explained the memorial in Hibben's words. It read:

This symbol of the sills and hearthstone of a pioneer cabin is placed here to mark and set aside this bit of Indiana soil as more hallowed than the rest. Here lived for a time, Abraham Lincoln, and here died his mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln. For countless generations mankind has held the hearthstone as the altar of his home, a place of joy in the times of his prosperity, as a refuge in adversity; a spot made sacred by the lives of those spent around it. This is the hearth set here to mark the place where Lincoln at his mother's knee learned that integrity and strength, that kindliness and love of all beauty, which have made the memory of his life and work a priceless heritage to all the world. [45]

Such a display technique was common at many early twentieth century historic sites. The introduction of a wall, tower, or building to house an artifact, however, often overwhelms the artifact and distracts from its setting. Sites where this phenomenon can be seen include Lincoln's Birthplace in Hodgenville, Kentucky, where a small log cabin is located within a massive limestone, Greek Revival temple, or at Plymouth Rock, where the rock is located in a stone box approximately 5 feet below the viewing platform. [46] While the cabin memorial's limestone walls, plaza, and plaque are not as obtrusive as some examples, the wall serves to encapsulate a remnant of a single structure without reference to its surroundings. Prior to its removal, the Hibben plaque interpreted the site as a shrine to both Lincoln and the virtues he learned from his mother. A different interpretive approach was undertaken with the construction of the Memorial Building and Court.

The ILU members proposed the Memorial Building and Court as an anchor for visitor activities. In 1931, Thomas Hibben offered an elaborate design consisting of a 150-foot tower and a pipe organ, but by May 1939, his scheme was deemed to be inappropriate. Initial plans also considered locating the Memorial Building close to Nancy Lincoln's grave, but this idea, too, was discarded. Therefore, Colonel Richard Lieber, president of ILU, sought the advice of Olmsted for both the building's design and its location on the completed landscape. Olmsted responded to the ILU in 1939 with five options that revolved around placing the building at various locations. The plan that was selected involved placement of two small buildings joined by a semi-circular cloister on the south side of the plaza, where a landscaped exedra was situated. [47]

In 1940, the ILU hired National Park Service architect Richard Bishop to finalize the plans for the Memorial Building and to supervise the on-site work. Bishop reviewed the many suggestions taken from ILU members and Olmsted and combined these with his own thoughts. Bishop's plan evolved out of the design ethic that proliferated during the New Deal era. The design's emphasis on native Indiana materials, use of local craftsmen, and simplified and stylistic Classical architecture are characteristic of Federal public works projects from the 1930s. The final design and construction included two buildings, the Nancy Hanks Lincoln Hall and Abraham Lincoln Hall, which were connected by a semi-circular cloister with five, life-sized, demi-relief sculptured panels depicting the life of Abraham Lincoln. The Nancy Lincoln Hall measured thirty feet by forty-five feet, and the Abraham Lincoln Hall measured thirty feet by sixty feet. Ground was broken in 1940, the cornerstone was laid in 1941, and construction was completed in 1943. The building was set back with a hierarchy of steps, and landscape designs emphasized its place within the landscape. Edson Nott, a landscape architect with the Indiana Department of Conservation, contributed to the final landscape designs and Indiana sculptor E.H. Daniels designed the five panels. As part of this project, the 1931 flagpole was relocated from the plaza to a terrace at the north end of the allee, and stone benches that originally were relocated at the cabin site memorial were moved to the corners of the plaza. Nott also prepared several plans for plantings and landscaping at the memorial, but these were implemented on an ad hoc basis. For example, a circular walk he planned for the north end of the allee was never constructed, and the present rectilinear configuration was in place by 1936. [48]

The sculptural panels and halls changed the symbolic character and interpretation of the site. Although the building was designated as the "Nancy Hanks Lincoln Memorial Building," published descriptions of the site begin to change following its construction. Earlier newspaper articles described the site as "sacred soil" and the memorial as the grave of the "sainted mother." The introduction of the Memorial Building and Court was seen as a memorial to the lives of Nancy Hanks and Abraham Lincoln, as well as the time they spent in Indiana. During Governor Henry F. Schricker's commemoration of the site he described it as follows:

Surely we may feel that we are on sacred ground. It contains the mortal remains of Nancy Hanks Lincoln and it was pressed for fourteen years by the bare feet of Abraham Lincoln. From it grew the bread that formed his bones as a growing boy. Surely we may feel that we are in spirit associating here with Nancy Hanks and Abraham Lincoln. We are erecting here a shrine to Motherhood and to the family hearthstone. We are memorializing democracy and religion. Here we pledge ourselves anew to freedom and union, to the cause of popular government and the American way of life and refresh ourselves anew with the principles of life that formed our pioneers. [49]

Governor Schricker's comments indicate that the shrine was increasingly being viewed as a patriotic memorial. It was common in the post-World War I and Great Depression years for both the Federal government and private organizations to commemorate the spirit of America.

At the Lincoln memorial, this was manifested in part by the Federal government's increasing role in the site's preservation, which ultimately led to the initiation of a study in 1959 to determine if the park merited inclusion in the National Park system. Among the sites photographed for the 1959 report were the railroad tracks that passed through the park, Lake Lincoln, State Route 162, which accessed the park entry, the allee, and the Memorial Building. Both the railroad tracks and the road were felt to detract from the park's setting, even though both elements actually predated the park's existence. The railroad tracks were laid during the 1870s, while the state highway followed an alignment that dated to the early nineteenth century.

The 1959 study concluded that the park should remain under state ownership and control. The State of Indiana, however, recognized the status assigned to parks controlled by the National Park Service and spent the next two years lobbying for its designation as a national memorial. Congressman Winfield K. Denton was especially instrumental to persuading the National Park Service to reconsider its position. In 1962, these efforts were rewarded with the passage of P.L. 87-407, 46 Stat. 9 (P.L. 87-407), authorizing the establishment of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial. [50]

In June 1963, the State of Indiana transferred ownership of 114.49 acres to the Federal government. An additional fourteen acres were acquired the following year. Only twenty-five acres of this tract, however, were part of the original Lincoln farmstead. Once the boundaries of the memorial were established and transferred to the Federal government, the National Park Service considered several changes, many of which were never completed. Among the proposed alterations actually implemented were construction of a larger parking lot, paving of the walks that paralleled the allee as well as trails through the woods, and relocation of state highway 162, which extended between the allee and the Memorial Building. The Memorial Building was adapted for use as a visitor's center, which required enclosing the cloister and adding a wing to the south side of the structure. A maintenance area and employee housing were constructed to the west of the allee and an exhibit shelter was placed to the north. [51]

In 1968, a Living History Farm also was introduced to the interpretation program. This feature was representative of a nationwide effort undertaken by museum professionals who were dissatisfied with the static displays and dioramas that were found in most museums. Using "living history," museums sought ways to create a dynamic picture of a historic period. They trained interpreters in period customs, provided period dress and tools, and developed structures that were as historically accurate as was feasible. [52]

The Living History Farm at the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial was developed by the National Park Service under the direction of the agency's director, George B. Hartzog, Jr., who wanted to develop a series of farms in national parks. This effort was separate from the 1960s-era joint venture involving the National Park Service, Department of Agriculture, and Smithsonian Institution to establish a nationwide system of living history farms. The addition of this feature to the park was not without controversy, as some officials felt that the living history farm would distract from the visitor's experience of the rest of the memorial. In its original conception, the farm also would have had a deleterious effect on other aspects; the 1970 Interpretive Prospectus proposed removing the cabin site entirely and relocating the Trail of Twelve Stones. Neither of these measures, however, was implemented. [53]

The Living History farm was constructed using historic agricultural buildings from throughout Indiana. Each building was disassembled and moved to the park for reconstruction. Once in place, the buildings functioned as an outdoor museum with guides dressed in period costumes and performing typical chores of a nineteenth century farm. The farm continues to uphold its educational mission to the present day.

NOTES

1 Marla McEnaney, A Noble Avenue: Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial Cultural Landscape Report (Omaha, Nebr.: Midwest Regional Office, National Park Service, 2001), 17.

2 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 20.

3 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 12.

4 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 21-22, 58.

5 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 22-23, 57.

6 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 30-32, 56.

7 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 35.

8 "Map of Original Land Entries," Lincoln State Park and Nancy Hanks Lincoln State Memorial (Lincoln City, Ind.: n.d.); Louis A. Warren, Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, 1816-1830 (Indianapolis, Ind.: Indiana Historical Society, 1991), 42, 44-46, 81, 97-101; Edwin C. Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood as a Living Historical Farm (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1967), 27-28; History of Warrick, Spencer and Perry Counties, Indiana (Chicago, Ill.: Goodspeed Brothers & Co., 1885), 426.

9 Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood, 143.

10 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 22-23; James H. Madison, The Indiana Way: A State History (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1990), 64; Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood, 145; Emanuel Hertz, The Hidden Lincoln: From the Letters and Papers of William H. Herndon (New York: Viking Press, 1938), 279.

11 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 41-42, 97; D. J. Lake & Co., An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Spencer County, Indiana (Philadelphia, Pa.: D. J. Lake & Co., 1879), 10; Andrew R. L. Cayton, Frontier Indiana (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1996), 184.

12 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 52-55; Hertz, Hidden Lincoln, 279.

13 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 62-65, 71, 232; Hertz, Hidden Lincoln, 353.

14 Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood, 1-2, 33, 39; Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 141, 159, 232.

15 History of . . . Spencer County, 365-366; Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood, n.p; Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 176, 187-188.

16 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 139, 143-145, 149, 168.

17 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 150, 174-175, 187, 193; Madison, Indiana Way, 77; Hertz, Hidden Lincoln, 356.

18 Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood, 148-153; Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 203.

19 Hertz, Hidden Lincoln, 357.

20 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 204-206; Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood, 33.

21 Bearss, Lincoln Boyhood, 33-35; Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 30.

22 History of . . . Spencer County, 365.

23 Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 1818-1968 (n.p., 1968), 34-35.

24 O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 5.

25 Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 29; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . . ", 10.

26 Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 29; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 11; York, Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground: An Expression of Sentiment and Reason — Historic Grounds Report, Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial (n.p.: National Park Service, 1984), 2. Nancy Lincoln and Nancy Brooner were buried side by side. In 1874, the Brooner family was among those who helped locate the graves of Nancy Lincoln and Nancy Brooner. However, the family members could not remember which grave lay to the north and which to the south. Therefore, the ornamental iron fence enclosed both graves.

27 William J. Murtagh, Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America (New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.:1993), 28.

28 Wright, Building the Dream, 76.

29 Warren, Lincoln's Youth, 54.

30 Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 29; Marla McEnaney, A Noble Avenue: Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial Cultural Landscape Report (Omaha, Nebr.: Midwest Regional Office, National Park Service, 2001), 2; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 13; York, Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground, 3.

31 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 8-9; Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 29-30; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 14-15.

32 Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 29-30; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 6, 17. Abraham Lincoln continued to correspond with friends from Indiana and mentioned wanting to see his family home in 1844 and 1860. It is therefore presumed that the cabin remained standing as late as 1860. By 1874, all the Lincoln farm buildings had been removed, including the cabin where citizens had their pictures taken after Lincoln's death in 1865. Around the same time, William Herndon argued that this latter cabin was not actually associated with the Lincolns, but he was overruled by popular sentiment. The cabin depicted in tourists' photographs continued to be accepted as the actual dwelling once occupied by the Lincolns.

33 Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 31; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 17.

34 Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 31; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 18, 20, 29; York, Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground, 1, 4.

35 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 10; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 20.

36 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 10; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 21; York, Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground, 7-11.

37 Michael Wallace, "Visiting the Past," in Presenting the Past, edited by Susan Porter Benson, Stephen Brier, and Roy Rosenzweig (Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press, 1986), 158.

38 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 11-12.

39 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 12; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 22.

40 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 12, 22.

41 O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 34, 36, 41; York, Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground, 14, 17-18.

42 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 37; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 40-41.

43 William E. Bartelt, "The Cabin Site Memorial and Its Architect," Prepared for the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial—Research Proposal #112 (Unpublished, 1991): 6; National Park Service, "Park History Cabin Site — Correspondence on Bronze Logs and Hearthstone Memorial."

44 National Park Service file, "Park History Cabin Site — Correspondence on Bronze Logs and Hearthstone Memorial," on file at the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial.

45 Bartelt, "The Cabin Site Memorial and Its Architect," 8.

46 David Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1985): 274.

47 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 29-30; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 55-58; York, Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground, 18.

48 O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 59-61, 63, 66-68, 79-80; "Sculptural Panels on Lincoln's Life Completed— Part of Hoosier Memorial," Outdoor Indiana (n.d.), 16; York, Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground, 31, 33. The five panels depict periods in Lincoln's life, beginning with the Lincoln family in Kentucky, listening to tales of the attractions of Indiana from a traveler; a vignette of the fourteen years spent in Indiana, featuring Lincoln's participation in the construction of a log cabin; an illustration of Lincoln's years in Illinois and his election to Congress; a depiction of his years in Washington as President and his visits with Ulysses Grant on a battlefield; and an apotheosis representing the spirit of Lincoln and his influence on future generations.

49 "Commemorative Building Cornerstone Laid During Impressive Ceremonies," Outdoor Indiana (n.d.), 13.

50 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 34.

51 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 4; O'Bright, "There I Grew Up. . .", 139, 143, 146.

52 Wallace, "Visiting the Past," 155.

53 McEnaney, A Noble Avenue, 35; Bartelt, "The Cabin Site Memorial and Its Architect," 9. The 1970 Interpretive Prospectus stated that the Cabin Site Memorial surrounded by a retaining wall was a definite intrusion on the Living Historical Farm as the park's development moved from the formal memorial to a more educational use. This report recommended that the retaining wall be removed to minimize the cabin site's "intrusion." This aspect of the 1970 plan was never implemented and, in fact, the plan no longer is endorsed by current park management.

MAJOR BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES

Bartelt, William E. "The Cabin Site Memorial and Its Architect." Prepared for the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial—Research Proposal #112. Unpublished, 1991.

Bearss, Edwin C. Lincoln Boyhood as a Living Historical Farm. Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1967.

Cayton, Andrew R. L. Frontier Indiana. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1996.

"Commemorative Building Cornerstone Laid During Impressive Ceremonies." Outdoor Indiana (No Date): 13, 26.

Hertz, Emanuel. The Hidden Lincoln: From the Letters and Papers of William H. Herndon. New York: Viking Press, 1938.

History of Warrick, Spencer and Perry Counties, Indiana. Chicago, Ill.: Goodspeed Brothers & Co., 1885.

Lake, D. J. & Co. An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Spencer County, Indiana. Philadelphia, Pa.: D. J. Lake & Co., 1879.

Lowenthal, David. The Past is a Foreign Country. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Madison, James H. The Indiana Way: A State History. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1990.

"Map of Original Land Entries." Lincoln State Park and Nancy Hanks Lincoln State Memorial. Lincoln City, Ind.: n.d..

McEnaney, Marla. A Noble Avenue: Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial Cultural Landscape Report. Omaha, Nebr.: Midwest Regional Office, National Park Service, 2001.

Murtagh, William. Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 1993.

O'Bright, Jill York. "There I Grew Up. . ." A History of the Administration of Abraham Lincoln's Boyhood Home. n.p.: National Park Service, 1987.

Rockport-Spencer County Sesquicentennial, 1818-1968. n.p., 1968.

"Sculptural Panels on Lincoln's Life Completed—Part of Hoosier Memorial." Outdoor Indiana (No Date):13, 16.

Wallace, Michael. "Visiting the Past." In Presenting the Past. Edited by Susan Porter Benson, Stephen Brier, and Roy Rosenzweig, pp 137-161. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press, 1986.

Warren, Louis A. Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, 1816-1830. Indianapolis, Ind.: Indiana Historical Society, 1991. Reprint of 1959 edition.

Wright, Gwendolyn. Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1992.

York, Jill M. Friendly Trees, Hallowed Ground: An Expression of Sentiment and Reason — Historic Grounds Report, Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial. n.p.: National Park Service, 1984.

Fig 1: Comprehensive Cultural Resources Base Map of Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial (Adapted from McEnaney, 2001: 49) (click on image for an enlargement in a new window)

The photographs (plates) below correspond to the locations numbered in the above figure. These photos can be viewed either by clicking on the links below or by clicking on 'Next' at the bottom of this page.

Plate 1: View of all new, flagpole terrace, and reforested area. Facing north.

Plate 2: View of flagpole terrace. Facing north.

Plate 3: View of Nancy Hanks Lincoln grave and pioneer cemetery. Facing east.

Plate 4: View of allee and Memorial Building from flagpole terrace. Facing south.

Plate 5: View of allee, parking plaza, and Memorial Building. Facing south.

Plate 6: View of parking plaza. Facing southeast.

Plate 7: View of north facade of Memorial Building. Facing south.

Plate 8: View of sculptural panels on north facade of Memorial Building. Facing south.

Plate 9: View of Nancy Hanks Lincoln Hall, east end of Memorial Building. Facing southwest.

Plate 10: View of south (rear) side of Memorial Building. Facing north.

Plate 11: View of south (rear) side of mid-1960s addition to Memorial Building. Facing northeast.

Plate 12: View of south and west sides of Abraham Lincoln Hall, west end of Memorial Building. Facing northeast.

Plate 13: View of cabin site memorial. Facing southeast.

Plate 14: View toward living history farm. Facing west.

Plate 1: View of all new, flagpole terrace, and reforested area. Facing north.

Plate 2: View of flagpole terrace. Facing north.

Plate 3: View of Nancy Hanks Lincoln grave and pioneer cemetery. Facing east.

Plate 4: View of allee and Memorial Building from flagpole terrace. Facing south.

Plate 5: View of allee, parking plaza, and Memorial Building. Facing south.

Plate 6: View of parking plaza. Facing southeast.

Plate 7: View of north facade of Memorial Building. Facing south.

Plate 8: View of sculptural panels on north facade of Memorial Building. Facing south.

Plate 9: View of Nancy Hanks Lincoln Hall, east end of Memorial Building. Facing southwest.

Plate 10: View of south (rear) side of Memorial Building. Facing north.

Plate 11: View of south (rear) side of mid-1960s addition to Memorial Building. Facing northeast.

Plate 12: View of south and west sides of Abraham Lincoln Hall, west end of Memorial Building. Facing northeast.

Plate 13: View of cabin site memorial. Facing southeast.

Plate 14: View toward living history farm. Facing west.