NEZ PERCE Administrative History

¹ Francis Haines, The Nez Perces: Tribesmen of the Columbia Plateau, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1955. The Nez Perce people do not capitalize these characters' names.

² Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest, revised ed., University of Oklahoma, Norman, 1992, p.145.

³ Haines, The Nez Perces: Tribesmen of the Columbia Plateau, p. 17.

⁴ Ruby and Brown, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest, p. 145.

⁵ Ibid., p. 146.

⁶ Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1965, pp. 329-337.

⁷ Ruby and Brown, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest, p. 146; Josephy, The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest, pp. 408-442.

⁸ Marcus J. Ware, "Looking Backward," July 12, 1977, and "The Impetus of the Alice Whatman Chapter on the Projected Visitor Center at Spalding Park," no date, NEPE, Library Vertical Files, Spalding Museum Foundation. These sources do not indicate to whom the letter was sent or whether it was referred to the NPS.

⁹ "The Impetus of the Alice Whatman Chapter on the Projected Visitor Center at Spalding Park," no date, NEPE, Library Vertical Files, Spalding Museum Foundation.

¹⁰ Ibid.; see also, Lewiston Tribune,, May 10, 1936. In recent years, tribal cultural leaders have pointed out to park officials that the rock used to memorialize the Spalding homesite was removed from its original location where it was known to Nez Perce oral tradition as "Coyote's cradle board." (Susan Buchel comments on draft, March 20, 1966.)

¹¹ Virginia Leckenby to Fellow Citizens, February 2, 1950, WSU, Ted Little Papers, Box 2, Folder 20.

¹² "The Impetus of the Alice Whatman Chapter on the Projected Visitor Center at Spalding Park," no date, NEPE, Library Vertical Files, Spalding Museum Foundation; Articles of Association of Spalding Museum Founding, Inc., November 1953, WSU, Ted Little Papers, Box 2, Folder 20.

¹³ Wilma M. Woods, "The Role of Federal Dollars and the Economics of Recreation in the Development of Idaho's State Parks, 1908-1965," Idaho Yesterdays, vol. 34, no. 4 (Winter 1991), pp. 15-21; quote on p. 19.

¹⁴ For example, see Governor Robert E. Smylie's remarks in U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964, pp. 30-31.

¹⁵ Appraisal of "Evans Property" at Spalding, Idaho, for Spalding Historical Assn. as of May 15, 1963, by Glenn W. Hall, WSU, Ted Little Papers, Box 2, Folder 20. Theodore H. Little, a Lewiston attorney who represented the Nez Perce Tribe, joined the foundation and became one of the key individuals in the movement for a national historical park.

¹⁶ Joseph H. Frazer, A Survey of the Recreation and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country, vol. I, report prepared by Armour Research Foundation, for the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Portland, Oregon, June 14,1963, p. 1.

¹⁷ Sue Whalen, "The Nez Perces' Relationship to Their Land," Indian Historian, vol. 4, no. 3 (1971), p. 31.

¹⁸ Allen Slickpoo, Sr., interview by author, July 21, 1995.

¹⁹ Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest, rev. ed. (Norman, 1992), p. 147.

²⁰ Theodore H. Little, untitled speech delivered in Clarkston, Washington, July 6, 1962, WSU, Ted Little Papers, Box 4, Folder 6.

²¹ For example, see Daniel H. Olney to R.D. Holtz, September 18, 1962, NAPNWR, RG 75, Portland Area Office, Tribal Operations Branch, Box 1536, Nez Perce Tribal Affairs 1962.

²² Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest, rev. ed. (Norman, 1992), p. 149.

²³ Daniel H. Olney to R.D. Holtz, September 18, 1962, NAPNWR, RG 75, Portland Area Office, Tribal Operations Branch, Box 1536, Nez Perce Tribal Affairs 1962; Lewiston Morning Tribune, June 11, 1961; Minutes of the Advisory Committee held at the Hotel Lewis Clark, Lewiston, Idaho, June 4, 1964, NAPNWR, RG 75, Portland Area Office, Tribal Operations Branch, Box 1567, Nez Perce Minutes 1964, p. 3.

²⁴ Francis P. Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, vol. 11 (Lincoln, 1984), pp. 1058-1059.

²⁵ Ibid., pp. 1087-1091.

²⁶ Jill D. Sweet, "Let 'em Loose": Pueblo Indian Management of Tourism," American Indian Culture and Research Journal, vol. 15, no. 4 (1991), pp. 59-74.

²⁷ U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964, p. 38; Larry French, "Tourism and Indian Exploitation: A Social Indictment," The Indian Historian, vol. 10, no. 4 (Fall 1977), pp. 19-27.

²⁸ Lewiston Morning Tribune, June 11, 1961.

²⁹ Allen Slickpoo, Sr., interview by author, July 21, 1995.

³⁰ Richard Schifler to Richard A. Halfmoon, March 17, 1961, enclosing Frank Church to John A. Carver, Jr. March 13, 1961, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

³¹ Daniel F. Burroughs, "Preliminary Report on the Proposed Plan of Recreation Development, Nez Perce Indian Tribe of Idaho," June 1961, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 4, April 1963. Richard Halfmoon recalls these events differently. Halfmoon relates that Burroughs' made a sudden appearance in Spalding, and expressed concern that Halfmoon and Sam Watters were prepared to burn down an old building next to Watters' home, and made a surprising announcement that the National Park Service was planning a park at the site. Halfmoon characterizes the NPS preliminary study as a "hush hush plan," and maintains that "nobody told the Nez Perce people what was going on." Richard Halfmoon, interview by author, July 27, 1995; Richard A. Halfmoon, comments on draft, May 9, 1996; Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

³² Daniel F. Burroughs, "Preliminary Report on the Proposed Plan of Recreation Development, Nez Perce Indian Tribe of Idaho," June 1961, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 4, April 1963.

³³ Lewiston Morning Tribune, June 11, 1961.

³⁴ Ibid.

³⁵ Lewiston Morning Tribune, March 11, 1962; Daniel H. Olney to R.D. Holtz, September 18, 1962, NAPNWR, RG 75, Portland Area Office, Tribal Operations Branch, Box 1536, Nez Perce Tribal Affairs, 1962.

³⁶ R.D. Holtz to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, July 25, 1961, NAPNWR, RG 75, Portland Area Office, Tribal Operations Branch, Box 1536, Nez Perce Tribal Affairs, 1962.

³⁷ Development Advisory Committee to Nez Perce Tribal Membership, no date, NAPNWR, RG 75, Portland Area Office, Tribal Operations Branch, Box 1536, Nez Perce Tribal Affairs, 1962.

³⁸ Another initiative by the Kennedy Administration encouraged the two groups to work together. As part of Kennedy's legislative program for stimulating the national economy, Congress passed the Area Redevelopment Act (ARA) on May 1, 1961. The ARA sought to provide low interest loans for business development in designated areas of the nation with substantial and persistent unemployment and underemployment. Further signalling the federal government's new direction in Indian policy, the act specifically targeted Indian reservations for redevelopment and authorized Indian tribes to apply for loans. Several counties in north central Idaho, including the Nez Perce Indian Reservation, were designated as a redevelopment area under the act. ARA funds, procured by NPTEC, helped to pay the cost of feasibility studies undertaken on behalf of the Nez Perce Tribe in 1962-63. See Larry Burt, "Western Tribes and Balance Sheets: Business Development Programs in the 1960s and 1970s," Western Historical Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 4 (November 1992), p. 480; Angus A. Wilson to William L. Batt, Jr., June 13, 1962, enclosing Technical Assistance Project Proposal, NAPNWR, RG 75, Portland Area Office, Tribal Operations Branch, Box 1536, Nez Perce Tribal Affairs, 1962.

³⁹ Acting Assistant Regional Director to Assistant Regional Director, June 19, 1962, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 4, April 1963.

⁴⁰ Lewiston Morning Tribune, August 30, 1962; Joseph H. Fraser, A Survey of the Recreational and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country, Vol. II, The Nez Perce Country, prepared for Armour Research Foundation for Bureau of Indian Affairs, Washington, June 1963; Erwin N. Thompson, A Survey of the Recreational and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country, Vol. II, The Nez Perce Country, prepared for Armour Research Foundation for Bureau of Indian Affairs, Washington, September 1963.

⁴¹ Joseph H. Fraser, "A Survey of the Recreational and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country," vol. 1, prepared by Armour Research Foundation for Bureau of Indian Affairs, June 14, 1963, pp. 5-10.

⁴² Erwin Thompson, A Survey of the Recreational and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country," vol. 2, prepared by Armour Research Foundation for Bureau of Indian Affairs, September 1963, p. 2.

⁴³ Ibid., pp. 3-5.

⁴⁴ For example, see Senator Len Jordan's testimony in U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964, p. 12.

⁴⁵ Erwin Thompson, A Survey of the Recreational and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country," vol. 2, prepared by Armour Research Foundation for Bureau of Indian Affairs, September 1963, p. i-ii.

⁴⁶ John A. Carver, Jr., to William Johnston, April 1, 1963, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 4, April 1963; Merle Wells, comments on draft, February 19, 1996.

⁴⁷ Ibid.

⁴⁸ Assistant Director to Assistant Secretary, April 5, 1963, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 4, April 1963.

⁴⁹ Director to Assistant Secretary, April 26, 1963, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 4, April 1963.

⁵⁰ U.S. Forest Service, Northern Region News (Missoula, Montana), No. 28, July 12, 1963, Lewiston Morning News, May 15, May 16, and May 18, 1963. Carver did not explain his decision to limit the park to Idaho. Presumably, a single-state park appeared more feasible politically. Park proposals traditionally needed the unanimous support of the state's whole congressional delegation in order to receive consideration by Congress.

⁵¹ Newton Edwards to William F. Johnston, June 3, 1963, and William F. Johnston to Newton Edwards, July 15, 1963, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folders 6 and 10, June and October 1963; William F. Johnston to Senator Frank Church, September 15, 1963, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 1.1, Box 92, File 11; Spokane Spokesman-Review, May 26, 1963.

⁵² Merle Wells, comments on draft, February 19, 1966.

⁵³ William F. Johnston to Newton Edwards, July 15, 1963, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 10, October 1963.

⁵⁴ William F. Johnston to Frank Church, September 15, 1963, Harold P. Fabian to William F. Johnston, September 10, 1963, and Port to Senator, September 10, 1963, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 1.1, Box 92, Folder 11.

⁵⁵ Edward B. Danson, Jr., Resolution Proposed Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, November 6, 1963, and Office of Senator Frank Church to Lewiston Morning Tribune, November 21, 1963, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 1.1, Box 92, Folder 11.

⁵⁶ Lewiston Morning Tribune, October 4, 1963.

⁵⁷ U.S. Congress, Senate, Proceedings for the Nez Perce National Historical Park in the State of Idaho, 89th Cong., 1st sess., S. Rept. 63, February 1965; U.S. Congress, House, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 89th Cong., 1st sess., H. Rept. 238, April 1965.

⁵⁸ U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964.

⁵⁹ Ed Woozley to Len B. Jordan, May 4, 1965, BSU, Len B. Jordan Papers, MSS 6, Box 144, Folder 8.

⁶⁰ Frank Church, Senate Speech, September 2, 1964, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 1.1, Box 92, Folder 11.

⁶¹ Quoted by Church in ibid.

⁶² U.S. Congress, House, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 89th Cong., 1st sess., H. Rept. 238, April 1965, p2.

⁶³ Mimeographed titled SLIP TO BE SENT INTO THE HOME OF EACH SCHOOL CHILD, WSU, Ted Little Papers, Box 2, Folder 20.

⁶⁴ U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964, p. 77.

⁶⁵ Ibid., p. 11.

⁶⁶ Allen Slickpoo, Sr., interview by author, July 21, 1995.

⁶⁷ U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964, p. 68.

⁶⁸ Assistant Regional Director to Director, January 21, 1964, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 14, February 1965.

⁶⁹ U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964, p. 32.

⁷⁰ John A. Rutter to Richard Halfmoon, August 14, 1975, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

⁷¹ Press Release, August 22, 1965, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 1.1, Box 92, Folder 12; Lewiston Morning Tribune, August 25, 1965.

⁷² Robert L. Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995.

⁷³ Robert L. Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995.

⁷⁴ Superintendent to Regional Director, December 8, 1966, NEPE, chrono files.

⁷⁵ Senator Church averred that this was the intent of Congress in Frank Church to William J. Jones, June 5, 1967, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 3.3.7, Box 132, Folder 14.

⁷⁶ Robert L. Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995.

⁷⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, November 14, 1967, NEPE, chrono files. Since then, the owners of the McBeth house have requested consultation by the Park Service on how to handle structural problems with the house. There may still be a possibility that the property will be added to the park. (Stephanie Toothman, comments on draft, March 18, 1996.)

⁷⁸ Ibid.

⁷⁹ Edward A. Hummel to William M. Frome, February 17, 1966, and Wilhelm M. Beckert to William M. Frome, February 17, 1966, FRC-Seattle, RG 79, Accession 74A598, Box 19936, File L7019.

⁸⁰ Burns also obtained plats of the original 1936 tree plantings in the arboretum from W.S. Thornber, a landscape engineer with the Idaho State Highway Department. Thornber was then retired and living in Lewiston. Robert L. Burns to W.S. Thornber, March 23, 1966, Superintendent to Regional Director, April 20, 1966, and Burns to Alden Stevens, July 25, 1966, NEPE, chrono files.

⁸¹ Superintendent to Acting Regional Director, May 6, 1966, and Superintendent to Regional Director, December 30, 1966, NEPE, chrono files.

⁸² Robert L. Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995.

⁸³ Robert L. Burns to Allen P. Slickpoo, March 26, 1966, Superintendent to Acting Regional Director, May 6, 1966, Burns to James D. Speer, May 19, 1966, Burns to Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners, December 13, 1966, NEPE, chrono files; Lewiston Morning Tribune, June 21, 1966; Carol Gamet, interview with author, July 26, 1995.

⁸⁴ Robert L. Burns to Allen P. Slickpoo, March 24, 1966, and Superintendent to Regional Director, September 15, 1966, NEPE, chrono files.

⁸⁵ Lewiston Morning Tribune, March 28, 1971.

⁸⁶ Robert L. Burns to J.V.K. Wagar, March 6, 1968, NEPE, chrono files.

⁸⁷ Superintendent, Nez Perce NHP to Superintendent, Coulee Dam NRA, November 6, 1967, NEPE, chrono files.

⁸⁸ Robert L. Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995.

⁸⁹ Carol Gamet, interview with author, July 26, 1995.

⁹⁰ Jack Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

⁹¹ Richard A. Halfmoon to Walter J. Hickel, October 6, 1970, and Glen T. Bean to Halfmoon, October 8, 1970, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Nez Perce Tribe.

⁹² Frank Church to A.L. Lyons, November 28, 1973, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 3.3.7, Box 133, Folder 8.

⁹³ Legislative Counsel to Frank Church, January 23, 1976, NEPE, Administrative Files, D18 Planning Development Programs Spalding Visitor Center.

⁹⁴ Allen P. Slickpoo and Irwin C. Watters, Tourist Development Project, February 26, 1969, Slickpoo to Jack Williams, March 14, 1969, Resolution NP 69-163, March 11, 1969, Slickpoo to Robert J. Giesen, December 16, 1969, Giesen to Slickpoo, January 8, 1970, and Regional Director to Director, February 17, 1970, NEPE, Administrative Files, A3815, Public Relations--Nez Perce Tribe.

⁹⁵ Regional Director to Director, February 17, 1970, NEPE, Administrative Files, A3815, Public Relations--Nez Perce Tribe; Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995; Allen P. Slickpoo, Sr., interview with author, July 21, 1995.

⁹⁶ Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

⁹⁷ Stanely W. Hulett to James A. McClure, December 11, 1973, and John A. Rutter to James A. McClure, January 25, 1974, NEPE, H1417 Administrative History; Rutter to Frank Church, February 15, 1973, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 3.3.7, Box 133, Folder 6.

⁹⁸ National Park Service, Final Development Concept Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, August 1976. Consultants for this project included NPTEC, Richard Halfmoon, (chairman), and Wilfred Scott (secretary).

⁹⁹ Superintendent's Annual Reports, 1972, 1973, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 67.

¹⁰⁰ Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

¹⁰¹ Superintendent to Regional Director, September 18, 1974, NEPE, chrono files.

¹⁰² Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

¹⁰³ John A. Rutter to Richard Halfmoon, February 18, 1975, May 12, 1975, and August 14, 1975, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers; Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995; Robert Morris, interview with author, August 30, 1995.

¹⁰⁴ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, News Release, September 8, 1975, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 3.3.7, Box 16, Folder 16.

¹⁰⁵ Robert L. Morris, interview with author, August 30, 1995.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid.

¹⁰⁷ Morris, interview with author, August 30, 1995.

¹⁰⁸ 90 Stat. 2732.

¹⁰⁹ Superintendent's Annual Reports, 1974, 1976, 1977, NEPE, chrono files.

¹¹⁰ Art Hathaway, interview with author, July 26, 1995.

¹¹¹ Frank Walker, comments on draft, February 26, 1996.

¹¹² The park symbol is two crossed eagle feathers. Superintendent Williams designed the park symbol.

¹¹³ Art Hathaway, interview with author, July 26, 1995.

¹¹⁴ Roderick Sprague to Charles F. Bohannon, March 25, 1976, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

¹¹⁵ Secretary NPTEC to NPTEC, September 19, 1979, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

¹¹⁶ Robert L. Morris to Wilfred A. Scott, September 12, 1979, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

¹¹⁷ David Chance, interview with author, October 2, 1995.

¹¹⁸ Secretary NPTEC to NPTEC, September 19, 1979, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

¹¹⁹ Ibid.

¹²⁰ Ibid. Spude was highly critical of how the project had been managed; she was later reprimanded for insubordination. Stephanie Toothman, comment on draft, March 18, 1996.

¹²¹ Karl Gurcke, Nez Perce National Historical Park Archaeological Excavations, 1979-1980, Part I, Burial Recovery and Monitoring, University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series No. 70, Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho, Moscow, 1981, p. 1.

¹²² Richard Halfmoon, interview with author, July 27, 1995. Nez Perce tribal members expressed concern that the reinterred graves should be properly protected in the future. In the fall of 1982, the NPS contracted with Sprague to oversee that the artifacts associated with the burials were protected under a cement slab, and that the graves were given suitable markers. At a dedication ceremony on November 24, 1982, NPTEC Chairman Scott expressed sorrow over the incident but said that greater understanding and respect were the foundation for preservation. Wilfred Scott to Fahy Whittaker, August 12, 1982, Richard Halfmoon Papers; Superintendent to Regional Director, December 1, 1982, NEPE, Administrative Files, A3815 Public Relations--Nez Perce Tribe.

¹²³ Superintendent's Annual Reports, 1976, 1977, 1978, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 67.

¹²⁴ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1981, NEPE, chrono file.

¹²⁵ Fahy C. Whittaker, interview with author, September 27, 1995.

¹²⁶ Kent Bush, interview with author, August 24, 1995; Art Hathaway, interview with author, July 26, 1995. For a thorough critique of the problem with exhibitry, see Superintendent to Regional Director, September 28, 1982, NEPE, chrono file.

¹²⁷ Fahy C. Whittaker, "Statement for Management, Nez Perce National Historical Park," September 28, 1983, CCSO, DSC Microfiche Reports, Nez Perce D-14A.

¹²⁸ Fahy C. Whittaker, interview with author, September 27, 1995; Fahy C. Whittaker, "Statement for Management, Nez Perce National Historical Park," September 28, 1983, CCSO, DSC Microfiche Reports, Nez Perce D-14A; Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982, NEPE, chrono file.

¹²⁹ Operations Evaluation Team to Regional Director, August 13, 1982, NEPE, A5427, Operations Evaluation.

¹³⁰ Regional Director to Superintendent, May 29, 1985, NEPE, Administrative Files, A5427 Operations Evaluations.

¹³¹ The tribe itemized its concerns about the superintendent as follows: "poor public relations with the tribe and general community; poor supervisory skills; poor attendance; lack of communication with the tribe on employment, park improvement projects, and land use; poor attitude; failure to meet with the Nez Perce Tribal Executive Committee and General Council when scheduled, etc." J. Herman Reuben to William Penn Mott, Jr., June 5, 1986, CCSO, Kent Bush files, File NPTEC.

¹³² William J. Briggle to Allen Slickpoo, April 29, 1986, Briggle to J. Herman Reuben, May 15, 1986, Briggle to Reuben, May 29, 1986, Fahy C. Whittaker to Reuben, June 5, 1986, Memorandum of Understanding between Nez Perce National Historical Park and Nez Perce Tribal Executive Committee, August 27, 1986, CCSO, Kent Bush files, File NPTEC.

¹³³ Roy W. Weaver, interview with author, October 4, 1995.

¹³⁴ Roy W. Weaver, interview with author, October 4, 1995.

¹³⁵ Roy W. Weaver, interview with author, October 4, 1995.

¹³⁶ Roy W. Weaver, interview with author, October 4, 1995.

¹³⁷ Roy W. Weaver, interview with author, October 4, 1995.

¹³⁸ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1990, CCSO, DSC reports on microfiche, NEPE D-34.

¹³⁹ Frank C. Walker, interview with author, July 21, 1995.

¹⁴⁰ Frank C. Walker, interview with author, July 21, 1995.

¹⁴¹ Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

¹⁴² Frank C. Walker, interview with author, July 21, 1995; Superintendent's Annual Report, 1993, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁴³ Susan Buchel and Paul Henderson, "Unit Organization Concept," no date, NEPE, library.

¹⁴⁴ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1991, CCSO, DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D-34.

¹⁴⁵ Richard Ellenwood, interview with author, October 3, 1995; Superintendent to Regional Director, September 30, 1994, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁴⁶ Chief, Office of Resource Planning to Assistant Director, October 25, 1968, FRC-Seattle, RG 79, Accession 74A207, Box 13183, File L1417.

¹⁴⁷ Land Protection Plan for Nez Perce National Historical Park, 1984, CCSO, Library, DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D-20, p.4. The Land and Water Conservation Fund was established under the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965. As amended in 1968, the fund captured revenues from visitor fees, surplus property sales, motorboat fuel taxes, and offshore oil and gas leasing and set it aside for federal and state parkland acquisition. Under the terms of the act, the Park Service could not purchase lands from the state of Idaho.

¹⁴⁸ NPTEC, Resolution 67-35, October 14, 1966, Superintendent Nez Perce National Historical Park to Superintendent Northern Idaho Agency, December 19, 1966, Superintendent Northern Idaho Agency to Superintendent Nez Perce National Historical Park, December 21, 1966, Bill Bryan to Richard A. Halfmoon, June 7, 1967, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

¹⁴⁹ Frank Church to George Hartzog, Jr., April 27, 1967, BSU, Frank Church Papers, Series 3.3.7, Box 132, Folder 14.

¹⁵⁰ Superintendent to Director, May 26, 1967, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁵¹ Clifford J. Harrison to Director, December 18, 1967, and Assistant Director to Chief, Office of Land and Water Rights, December 20, 1967, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Spalding Site General.

¹⁵² Superintendent to Regional Director, December 13, 1968, NEPE, chrono file; Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1965; Superintendent to Regional Director, April 4, 1985, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁵³ Superintendent to Regional Director, November 24, 1970 and December 3, 1971, NEPE, chrono file; Memorandum of Agreement Between the National Park Service and the Nez Perce Tribe of Idaho Relating to the Maintenance of the Lapwai Mission Cemetery, Spalding, Idaho, April 10, 1971, NEPE, Richard Halfmoon Papers.

¹⁵⁴ Robert L. Morris to Wilfred A. Scott, November 21, 1979, Regional Director to Director, February 25, 1981, and Superintendent to Regional Director, October 11, 1984, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Nez Perce Tribe; Superintendent to Regional Director, April 5, 1988, Superintendent to Deputy Regional Director, March 2, 1989, Office of the Regional Solicitor to the Chief, Division of Lands, April 11, 1989, Chief, Division of Lands to Associate Regional Director, April 18, 1991, Superintendent to Chairman, NPTEC, April 22, 1991, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Acquisition of Lands—Holdings, Land Exchange—Nez Perce Tribe.

¹⁵⁵ Roy W. Weaver, interview with author, October 4, 1965; Superintendent to Public Affairs Office, PNRO, September 12, 1988, NEPE, chrono file; assorted correspondence in NEPE, Administrative Files, A3815 Public Relations—Closure East Gate.

¹⁵⁶ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, A Master Plan for Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, June 1968, pp. 16-18.

¹⁵⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, November 14, 1967, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁵⁸ Allen Slickpoo, Sr., interview with author, July 21, 1995.

¹⁵⁹ Henry L. Sugden to Robert Burns, October 9, 1967, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Presbyterian Church.

¹⁶⁰ Superintendent to Regional Director, February 5, 1968, FRC-Seattle, RG 79, Accession 74A207, Box 13183, File L30.

¹⁶¹ The proposal had the support of Regional Historian John Hussey, Reed Jarvis, and Park Historian Earl Harris. Acting Assistant Regional Director to Director, July 11, 1968, FRC-Seattle, RG 79, Accession 74A598, Box 19936, File L7019; and Jack R. Williams to Rev. Henry L. Sugden, January 22, 1969, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁶² Regional Historian to Assistant Regional Director, October 10, 1966, and Superintendent to Regional Director, November 16, 1966, FRC-Seattle, RG 79, Accession 74A207, Box 13183, File L30; Superintendent to Regional Director, January 14, 1970, NEPE, Administrative Files, D18 Planning Program; Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

¹⁶³ Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

¹⁶⁴ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, A Master Plan for Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, June 1968, p. 25.

¹⁶⁵ Attorney General to Secretary of the Interior, March 10, 1970, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Harry M. Hagen Tract 01-101; Jack R. Williams to Idaho Department of Public Lands, December 13, 1968, NEPE, chrono; Superintendent to Regional Director, November 17, 1971, NEPE, Administrative Files, Resource Management files, White Bird Battlefield Easements.

¹⁶⁶ Superintendent to District Director, March 28, 1969, Superintendent to Director, June 25, 1970, NEPE, chrono file; Superintendent to District Director, April 2, 1969, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Development of Public Lands—Idaho.

¹⁶⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, November 17, 1971, NEPE, Administrative Files, Resource Management files, White Bird Battlefield Easements.

¹⁶⁸ Jack R. Williams to Harry M. Hagen, June 17, 1971, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Harry M. Hagen Tract 01-101.

¹⁶⁹ Jack R. Williams to Harry M. Hagen, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Harry M. Hagen Tract 01-101.

¹⁷⁰ Franklin C. Walker to Andrew Dahlquist, June 10, 1991, Chief Ranger to Associate Regional Director, April 26, 1991, and Office of the Regional Solicitor to Superintendent, June 6, 1991, NEPE, L3019 Land Use (Special Use Permits) Dahlquist—Timber Cutting Incident.

¹⁷¹ Superintendent to Regional Director, March 6, 1991, Administrative Files, A38 Public Relations.

¹⁷² Superintendent to Regional Director, January 8, 1967, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁷³ Forest Supervisor to Chairman, NPTEC, June 19, 1972, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 Musselshell Meadow.

¹⁷⁴ Superintendent to Regional Director, November 4, 1968, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁷⁵ Director to Frank Church, October 13, 1967, Superintendent to Regional Director, July 2, 1968, Chief, Portland Field Office to Regional Director, September 28, 1968, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 St. Joseph's Mission Church.

¹⁷⁶ Superintendent to Regional Director, December 19, 1968, Jack R. Williams to Mr. and Mrs. John Pfeifer, November 26, 1968, NEPE, Administrative Files, L1425 St. Joseph's Mission Church.

¹⁷⁷ Briefing Report, Cooperative Agreement between the National Park Service and the St. Joseph's Mission Historical Society, 1987, NEPE, Administrative Files, A4415 Cooperative Agreements, St. Joseph's Mission. The agreement was renegotiated in 1987. A major concern at this time was to ensure that the interpretive use of the church property would continue after the Pfeifers were deceased. See additional correspondence, same file.

¹⁷⁸ Superintendent to Director, November 17, 1971, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁷⁹ Roy W. Weaver to Ms. Debbi Duffy, February 23, 1987, NEPE, Administrative Files, A4415 Cooperative Agreement, Idaho State Historical Society, CCSO, Resources Management Land and EA for Nez Perce National Historical Park, 1981, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D-15.

¹⁸⁰ Pat Byron to Sue Buchel, February 17, 1990, NEPE, Administrative Files, D6215 Plan/Preparation/Maintenance/Preservation Pierce County Courthouse.

¹⁸¹ Roy W. Weaver, interview with author, October 4, 1995.

¹⁸² Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982, NEPE, chrono file; Sue Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

¹⁸³ National Park Service, Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, Comprehensive Management Plan Status Report, March 1981, p. 1.

¹⁸⁴ Ibid.

¹⁸⁵ Lewiston Morning Tribune, February 5, 1996.

¹⁸⁶ Regional Director to Superintendent, May 15, 1980, NEPE, Administrative Files, L6017 National Scenic/Historic Trails, Lewis-Clark Historic Trail.

¹⁸⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, November 17, 1972, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁸⁸ Jack R. Williams to Appaloosa Horse Club, Inc., February 25, 1975, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁸⁹ Forest Service, The Nez Perce (Nee-Me-Poo) National Historic Trail Comprehensive Plan, 1990, pp. 3-6; Mary Hortsman, interview with author, October 23, 1995; Stephanie Toothman, comments on draft, March 18, 1996.

¹⁹⁰ Superintendent to Regional Director, February 5, 1987, NEPE, chrono file. Weaver suggested that the Redthunders could provide the desired input, and failed to remind the Forest Service to maintain relations with the Colville Business Council. Subsequently, the Colville Business Council criticized the Redthunders and the Forest Service for this informal arrangement. The Chief Joseph Band of Nez Perce complained that it lacked proper representation in the management of the trail. (Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.)

¹⁹¹ Superintendent to Regional Director, May 27, 1992, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁹² Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.)

¹⁹³ Carol Gamet, interview with author, July 26, 1995. Superintendent Burns cited "two separate instance of drowning in the Clearwater River at the Park site in 1966, before the National Park Service had assumed jurisdiction," Superintendent to Regional Director, April 19, 1967, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁹⁴ Superintendent to Regional Director, October 31, 1978, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁹⁵ Superintendent to Regional Director, April 19, 1967, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁹⁶ Prior to that time, Burns purchased dog food at government expense to feed two old watch dogs who were longtime residents of the Watson's Store. Robert L. Burns to Katherine Swift, May 2, 1966, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁹⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, June 9, 1969, NEPE, chrono file.

¹⁹⁸ Fahy C. Whittaker, Statment for Management, Nez Perce National Historical Park, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D14A, p. 12.

¹⁹⁹ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1972, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 67.

²⁰⁰ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1972, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 67.

²⁰¹ Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

²⁰² Jack R. Williams to Eli B. Ponack, February 25, 1972, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁰³ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1972, 1974, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 67.

²⁰⁴ The incident is described in detail in Glenn L. Hinsdale to Sydney Smith, June 21, 1972, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁰⁵ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Crime Prevention & Physical Security Plan (draft), October 20, 1979, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D15.

²⁰⁶ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁰⁷ Fahy C. Whittaker, Statment for Management, Nez Perce National Historical Park, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D14A, pp. 6-12; Memorandum, "Pet Policy, Nez Perce National Historical Park," May 9, 1984, NEPE, Administrative Files W4615 General Regulations, Pet Policy--Correspondence; Fahy C. Whittaker, interview with author, September 27, 1995.

²⁰⁸ Superintendent to Regional Director, April 14, 1983, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁰⁹ NEPE, Administrative Files, W4617 General Regulations, Law Enforcement Guidelines.

²¹⁰ Superintendent to Acting Regional Director, February 3, 1987, NEPE, chrono file.

²¹¹ Superintendent to Regional Director, October 17, 1990, NEPE, chrono file.

²¹² NEPE, Administrative Files, W2623 Reports--Situation, Law Enforcement Program Assessment.

²¹³ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1991, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D34.

²¹⁴ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1992, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D34; Superintendent's Annual Report, 1993, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE chrono file.

²¹⁵ Joseph H. Frazer, A Survey of the Recreation and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country, vol. I, prepared by Armour Reserach Foundation for U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Portland, Oregon, June 1963, p. 6.

²¹⁶ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, A Master Plan for Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, June 1968, p. 9. The authors of the Interpretive Prospectus (1970) were even more blunt: "We cannot assume that most visitors will see all units of the park; in fact, probably very few will. The average visitor coming into the country is recreation-oriented. He is not after a million facts and this situation should guide our interpretive developments. If we can interest this visitor with a few provocative elements, he may wish to involve himself more deeply in the park story. We don't want to offer him so much on initial contact that he is confused and bewildered by it all. The light touch is better than the sledge hammer approach." (p. 4).

²¹⁷ Ibid., p. 9.

²¹⁸ Multiple meanings of the term, "Nez Perce country" are described in "Nez Perce National Historical Park," Incredible Idaho, vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1960, pp. 20-22.

²¹⁹ Erwin N. Thompson, A Survey of the Recreation and Tourism Resources in the Nez Perce Country, vol. II, prepared by Armour Reserach Foundation for U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Portland, Oregon, September 1963, p. 2.

²²⁰ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, A Master Plan for Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, June 1968, p. 2.

²²¹ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Interpretive Prospectus (1970), p. 2. Perhaps mindful of the Spalding Museum Foundation's particular interest in Henry Spalding, the authors of the interpretive prospectus did not explicitly consign missionaries to a supporting role, but in practical terms the missionary experience was undergoing the same process of marginalization.

²²² Ibid., pp. 6-10.

²²³ U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, 88th Cong., 2d sess., August 18 and October 9, 1964, p. 18.

²²⁴ Ibid., p. 20.

²²⁵ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1972, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 67. Superintendent Williams reported the following statistics for the years 1968-1972.

²²⁶ Superintendent to Director, January 13, 1972, NEPE, chrono file.

²²⁷ Superintendent to Director, January 9, 1970, and January 13, 1972, NEPE, chrono file.

²²⁸ Superintendent to Regional Director, October 24, 1974, NEPE, chrono file.

²²⁹ Art Hathaway, interview with author, July 26, 1995.

²³⁰ Art Hathaway, interview with author, July 26, 1995.

²³¹ Freeman Tilden, in his influential book Interpreting our Heritage, cited demonstration as one of the key ingredients in park interpretation. Instead of putting a historical object on display, park interpreters would demonstrate how the object was used. Tilden, Interpreting our Heritage: Principles and Practices for Visitor Services in Parks, Museums, and Historic Places, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1957, pp. 70-72.

²³² Superintendent to Director, February 23, 1967, NEPE, chrono file.

²³³ Robert Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995. The position description for the cultural demonstrator stated that the incumbent would "demonstrate for public enjyoment, education, and inspiration, the creation of and production by hand of Nez Perce cultural articles." See Job Description for Cultural Demonstrator, [1967], NEPE, chrono file.

²³⁴ Superintendent to Director, January 9, 1970, NEPE, chrono file.

²³⁵ Superintendent to Director, January 13, 1972, NEPE, chrono file; Jack R. Williams to Richard A. Halfmoon, July 10, 1972, NEPE, chrono file; Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

²³⁶ Ibid.

²³⁷ Ibid.; Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

²³⁸ Carol Gamet, interview with author, July 26, 1995.

²³⁹ Lewiston Morning Tribune, August 26, 1984.

²⁴⁰ Superintendent to Regional Director, November 5, 1985, Administrative Files, NEPE, L58 Proposed Areas.

²⁴¹ Program notes, 1988-1991, NEPE, Administrative Files, K18 Interpretive Activities, Nez Perce Lyceum.

²⁴² Superintendent to Regional Director, December 19, 1990, NEPE, chrono file; Superintendent's Annual Report, 1991, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D34.

²⁴³ National Park Education Program and Parks as Classrooms, [1991], NEPE, Administrative Files, K1817 Interpretive Activities, Education Program.

²⁴⁴ Superintendent to Regional Director, January 27, 1971, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁴⁵ Executive Secretary, NPPCA, to Regional Director, February 25, 1970, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁴⁶ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1993, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁴⁷ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1981, 1986, NEPE, chrono file; Frank Walker, comments on draft, February 26, 1995.

²⁴⁸ Futures Workshop, Nez Perce National Historical Park General Management Plan, authors notes, May 15-18, 1995.

²⁴⁹ John Dishon McDermott, Forlorn Hope: A Study of the Battle of White Bird Canyon Idaho and the Beginning of the Nez Perce Indian War, National Park Service, Division of History, June 1968.

²⁵⁰ Chief, Division of Exhibits to Regional Director, November 17, 1976, Superintendent to Regional Director, November 22, 1976, Acting Superintendent to Regional Director, December 20, 1976, Hank Warren to Superintendent Morris, December 20, 1976, Labels - White Bird Battlefield Exhibit (quoted), NEPE, Administrative Files, D18 Planning Program.

²⁵¹ Fahy C. Whittaker, interview with author, September 27, 1995.

²⁵² Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

²⁵³ National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Interpretive Prospectus, 1970, p. 2.

²⁵⁴ Fahy C. Whittaker, interview with author, September 27, 1995.

²⁵⁵ Futures Workshop, Nez Perce National Historical Park General Management Plan, authors notes, May 15-18, 1995.

²⁵⁶ Susan Buchel, telephone interview, May 2, 1996.

²⁵⁷ Jack R. Williams, interview with author, September 28, 1995.

²⁵⁸ National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Interpretive Prospectus, 1970, p. 18.

²⁵⁹ Nez Perce National Historical Park Interpretive Prospectus, National Park Service, 1970, p. 2; Nez Perce National Historical Park Collection Management Plan, National Park Service, 1994, p. 9.

²⁶⁰ The canoe was pictured in a juvenile history book, To the Pacific with Lewis and Clark, an entry in the American Heritage Junior Library Series. Park historian Earl Harris investigated the canoe's history and determined that it had most likely been built by a non-Indian for use on the Clearwater River some time prior to World War I. Lewiston Morning Tribune, February 7, 1963; Earl R. Harris to H.P. Howard, May 14, 1968, NEPE, chrono file; National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Collection Management Plan, Seattle, 1994, p. 3.

²⁶¹ National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Collection Management Plan, Seattle, 1994, p. 3; Superintendent to Regional Director, July 31, 1969, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁶² National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Collection Management Plan, Seattle, 1994, p. 5.

²⁶³ Kent Bush, comments on draft, March 29, 1996.

²⁶⁴ Superintendent to Regional Director, June 14, 1977, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁶⁵ Superintendent to Regional Director, December 20, 1979, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁶⁶ Nez Perce National Historical Park, The Spalding-Allen Museum Collection (brochure), [1995]; Roy W. Weaver to Dr. Gary C. Ness, June 10, 1988, CCSO, Kent Bush files.

²⁶⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, September 28, 1982, NEPE, chrono file; Kent Bush, interview with author, August 24, 1995.

²⁶⁸ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1981, NEPE, chrono file; Superintendent to Deputy Regional Director, February 18, 1983, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁶⁹ Art Hathaway, interview with author, July 26, 1995; Kent Bush, interview with author, August 24, 1995.

²⁷⁰ Laurin Huffman, personal communication, April 10, 1996.

²⁷¹ Art Hathway, interview with author, July 26, 1995; Deputy Regional Director to Regional Curator, August 1, 1984, and Regional Curator to Deputy Regional Director, August 31, 1984, Kent Bush files; U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Inspector General Audit Report, "Review of Museum Management at the Nez Perce National Historical Park, National Park Service," March 1985, pp. 17-19.

²⁷² National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Collection Management Plan, Seattle, 1994, p. 7.

²⁷³ Roy W. Weaver to Dr. Gary C. Ness, June 10, 1988, CCSO, Kent Bush files.

²⁷⁴ Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

²⁷⁵ Richard Ellenwood, interview with author, October 3, 1995.

²⁷⁶ The Missoulian, November 29, 1995.

²⁷⁷ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1989, NEPE, chrono file; Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

²⁷⁸ Curator to Chief, I&RM, December 28, 1983; Development/Study Package Proposal, July 29, 1982, CCSO, Kent Bush files. Particular concerns with the condition of the storage vaults included potential contamination of collections by oil and dust from the heat pump/air filtration unit and lighting deficiencies.

²⁷⁹ Environmental Assessment, Proposed Spalding Consolidated Storage Facility, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Spalding, Idaho, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D38.

²⁸⁰ The park's Collection Management Plan, completed in 1994, recommended a further staff increase of one permanent full-time Curator of Collections position plus a four-year term appointment for a technician to clear up the remaining problems with accessions, cataloguing, and internal control monitoring. National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Collection Management Plan, Seattle, 1994, pp. 89-91; Susan Buchel, interview with author, October 23, 1995; Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

²⁸¹ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Unit Organization Concept, no date, NEPE, library.

²⁸² Superintendent to Director, Western Service Center, January 20, 1971, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁸³ CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D4, NEPE D6, NEPE D7.

²⁸⁴ CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D717 and NEPE D724.

²⁸⁵ This was an adaptive restoration. The exterior was restored as closely as possible to its original appearance when built in 1894. On the interior, the NPS preserved the original stairway but installed modern kitchen and bathroom plumbing. (Laurin Huffman, comments on draft, Mach 12, 1996.)

²⁸⁶ Poor Coyote's cabin had been disassembled and moved to the site, reassembled incorrectly, and parked under the viaduct on skids. At first the Idaho State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) maintained that the cabin was significant, perhaps as a transitional Nez Perce house. The documentation on the house and its physical condition were poor, however, and in the late 1980s the NPS persuaded the Idaho SHPO to accept documentation and removal of the structure. The Crawford House was removed in the early 1980s, to the Idaho SHPO's subsequent regret. (Stephanie Toothman, comments on draft, March 18, 1996.)

²⁸⁷ Extensive correspondence on this issue, spanning the years 1973-1989, may be found in NEPE, Administrative Files, D3423 Spalding Post Office.

²⁸⁸ National Park Service, Resources Management Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, 1995, p. 30.

²⁸⁹ Cathy A. Gilbert, Gretchen A. Luxenberg, and Marsha R. Tolon, Historic Landscape Report: Spalding Unit, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, Seattle, 1990, p. 4.

²⁹⁰ Sue Buchel, interview with author, October 23, 1995.

²⁹¹ David H. Chance and Jennifer V. Chance with Elmer Paul, A Review of the Archaeology of the Nez Perce Country, prepared for the National Park Service, Alfred W. Bowers Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho, November 1987. Hereafter cited as Chance, et al., Archaeology of the Nez Perce Country.

²⁹² Ibid., pp. 2-3; National Park Service, Resources Management Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, 1995, p. 22.

²⁹³ Chance, et al., Archaeology of the Nez Perce Country, p. 9; Superintendent to Regional Director, October 16, 1972, November 9, 1972, April 10, 1973, February 25, 1977, and May 2, 1977, NEPE, chrono file.

²⁹⁴ David H. Chance and Jennifer V. Chance, Exploratory Excavations at Spalding Mission, 1973, Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho, Moscow, 1974.

²⁹⁵ Thomas M. Iverson, A Preliminary Report of Archaeological Investigations of the Agency Cabin, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Laboratory of Anthropology, University of Idaho, Moscow, 1975.

²⁹⁶ Chance, et al., Archaeology of the Nez Perce Country, p. 12 (quote); David H. Chance and Jennifer V. Chance, Archaeology at Spalding, 1978-1979, University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series, Laboratory of Anthropology, University Idaho, Moscow, 1984, pp. 1, 6.

²⁹⁷ David H. Chance and Jennifer V. Chance, Archaeology at Spalding, 1978-1979, University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series, Laboratory of Anthropology, University Idaho, Moscow, 1984, p. 12.

²⁹⁸ Chance, et al., Archaeology of the Nez Perce Country, p. 12; Karl Gurcke, et al., Nez Perce National Historical Park Archaeological Investigations, 1979-1980, University of Idaho Anthropological Research Manuscript Series No. 70, Laboratory of Anthropology, University Idaho, Moscow, 1981.

²⁹⁹ David H. Chance to Jim Thomson, April 21, 1987, NEPE, H30 Historic Sites and Structures.

³⁰⁰ Chance, et al., Archaeology of the Nez Perce Country, p. 61.

³⁰¹ Susan Buchel, "Report on Rehabilitation of Vandalized Burials, White Bird Battlefield," December 3, 1991, (case incident records attached), NEPE, Administrative files, L1425 White Bird Site General.

³⁰² National Park Service, Resources Management Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, March 1995, p. 19; Douglas D. Scott, A Sharp Little Affair: The Archeology of the Big Hole Battlefield. Reprints in Anthropology, vol. 45. Lincoln, Nebraska: J&L Reprint Company, 1994.

³⁰³ Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996; Patrick J. Rennie and John H. Brumley, "Prehistoric Archaeological Overview and Assessment of the Canyon Creek Battlefield Area: Yellowstone County, Montana," draft report prepared for National Park Service, July 1994; Rennie and Brumley, ""Prehistoric Archaeological Overview and Assessment of the Bear's Paw Battlefield State Park: Blaine County, Montana," draft report prepared for National Park Service, June 1994.

³⁰⁴ National Park Service, A Master Plan for Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, June 1968, p. 30; Superintendent to Regional Director, October 19, 1973, NEPE, chrono file.

³⁰⁵ Douglas J. Riley, Environmental Assessment, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Spalding Site, [1975], NEPE, Resource Management files, Fire; Nez Perce National Historical Park Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D-15B, p. 12.

³⁰⁶ Regional Director to Superintendent, May 7, 1974, NEPE, Resource Management files, RM - White Bird Battlefield Grazing Impact Studies; Laurin Huffman, personal communication, April 10, 1996. On the appaloosa, see Haines, The Nez Perce: Tribesmen of the Columbia Plateau, pp. 23-24.

³⁰⁷ Ibid.

³⁰⁸ Ronald W. Portman, Tree Survey Report, September 17-18, 1974, NEPE, Resource Management files, Spalding - Arboretum.

³⁰⁹ Douglas J. Riley, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Spalding Site, Prescribed Burn Proposal, NEPE, Resource Management files, Fire.

³¹⁰ Douglas J. Riley, Environmental Assessment, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Spalding Site, [1975], NEPE, Resource Management files, Fire.

³¹¹ Robert Morris, interview with author, August 30, 1995.

³¹² Superintendent's Annual Report, 1977, NEPE, Administrative History 33873, Folder 67; Fire Management Plan, 1980, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D15.

³¹³ Superintendent to Regional Director, January 26, 1977, NEPE, Resource Management files, White Bird Battlefield Revegetation Projects General Information; Robert Morris, interview with author, August 30, 1995.

³¹⁴ Acting Superintendent to Regional Director, February 17, 1983, NEPE, Administrative Files N1617 Revegetation Management - White Bird Site.

³¹⁵ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment for Nez Perce National Historical Park, 1981, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE, D15.

³¹⁶ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982, NEPE, chrono file.

³¹⁷ Acting Superintendent to Regional Director, February 17, 1983, NEPE, Administrative Files N1617 Revegetation Management - White Bird Site.

³¹⁸ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Five-year Program Sheet and Overview-needs Update, April 10, 1984, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE, D15.

³¹⁹ Ibid.; Ken L. Adkisson, Preservation of Native Grasslands, April 27, 1984, NEPE, chrono file.

³²⁰ Superintendent to Regional Director, December 12, 1983, and February 14, 1984, NEPE, chrono file; Questions Submitted to the Subcommittee on Interior and Related Agencies by Senator James A. McClure on April 2, 1985 for Hearings on the National Park Service, April 10, 1985, NEPE, Administrative files, L3019 Land Use - Grazing General.

³²¹ Superintendent to Regional Director, February 14, 1984, NEPE, chrono file; Questions Submitted to the Subcommittee on Interior and Related Agencies by Senator James A. McClure on April 2, 1985 for Hearings on the National Park Service, April 10, 1985, NEPE, Administrative files, L3019 Land Use - Grazing General.

³²² Nez Perce National Historical Park, Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, 1987, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE, D15B.

³²³ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment, 1987, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE, D15B, p. 5.

³²⁴ Ibid.

³²⁵ Jan Dick to Roy Weaver, June 15, 1988, NEPE, N1617 Revegetation Management - White Bird Site. See also Mack Barrington and R. Gerald Wright, "An Inventory of Plant Communities and Methods to Monitor Vegetation Change at White Bird Battlefield, Nez Perce NHS," July 1989, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE, D31.

³²⁶ Superintendent to Regional Director, June 17, 1988, NEPE, Administrative Files, N1617 Revegetation Management - White Bird Site.

³²⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, January 10, 1990, NEPE, Administrative Files, N1617 Revegetation Management - White Bird Site.

³²⁸ Nez Perce National Historical Park, "Grazing Management Plan, East Kamiah," no date, NEPE, Resource Management files, Vegetation Management Plan.

³²⁹ Spalding Revegetation, Accomplishments 1988, NEPE, Resource Management files, Vegetation Management Plan.

³³⁰ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Fire Management Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE, D24.

³³¹ Susan Buchel, comments on draft, March 20, 1996.

³³² National Park Service, Nez Perce Alternative Study Report: Oregon and Washington, 1969, p. 3.

³³³ Ibid., pp. 4-5.

³³⁴ Ibid., pp. 17-30.

³³⁵ Ibid., pp. 36-37.

³³⁶ Alvin M. Josephy, Jr. to Jack Williams, September 7, 1971, NEPE, Administrative Files, L58 Proposed Areas - New Additions, Wallowa 1970-1973.

³³⁷ The NPS Western Region was in the process of reorganization and the design office in San Francisco was getting split up between Seattle and Denver. Jack Williams to Don Swart, February 26, 1973, NEPE, Administrative files, L58 Proposed Areas - New Additions, Wallowa 1970-1973.

³³⁸ National Park Service, Draft Environmental Statement, Proposed Oregon Additions, Nez Perce National Historical Park, 1972, Acting Regional Director to Director, December 6, 1972, NEPE, L58 Proposed Areas - New Additions, Wallowa 1970-1973.

³³⁹ Stephanie Toothman, interview with author, August 24, 1995.

³⁴⁰ Robert Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995.

³⁴¹ Mark Stevens, "Chief Joseph's Revenge," The New Yorker, August 8, 1994, p. 32; Wilfred A. Scott to Cecil B. Andrus, October 11, 1977, Edward J. Kurtz to Scott, December 13, 1977, Director to Scott, December 16, 1977, and Russell Dickenson to Scott, January 13, 1978, NEPE, Administrative Files, A3815 Public Relations - Nez Perce Tribe.

³⁴² Department of the Interior, Draft Environmental Statement, Proposed Oregon Additions, Nez Perce National Historical Park, [1971]; Superintendent to Regional Director, March 3, 1972, NEPE, chrono file; Regional Director to Associate Director, May 22, 1973, NEPE, L58 Proposed Areas - New Additions, Wallowa 1970-1973.

³⁴³ Task Directive, Nez Perce Additions Study: 1987, NEPE, Additions Study files.

³⁴⁴ Stanlynn Daugherty to Robert Packwood, December 1, 1986, NEPE, Additions Study files.

³⁴⁵ Acting Superintendent to Regional Director, November 13, 1986, NEPE, chrono files; Task Directive, Nez Perce Additions Study: 1987, NEPE, Additions Study files. Regional Historian Stephanie Toothman served as team leader. Other team members included Superintendent Roy Weaver, Regional Chief of Natural Resource Management Reed Jarvis, Regional Archeologist Jim Thomson, and Glenn Hinsdale of the regional office's Interpretation Division. The task force also included representatives from the BIA, Forest Service, and Idaho State Historical Society.

³⁴⁶ Stephanie Toothman, interview with author, August 24, 1995; Stephanie Toothman, comments on draft, March 18, 1996.

³⁴⁷ National Park Service, Nez Perce National Historical Park Additions Study (Draft Report), 1989, NEPE, Additions Study files. The team rejected Fort Fizzle because the earlier studies had rejected it; the team did not visit the site. The team rejected Swallows Nest because, contrary to earlier reports, tribal representatives did not indicate that it had any significance to the Nez Perce people. (Stephanie Toothman, comments on draft, March 18, 1996.)

³⁴⁸ Superintendent to Regional Director, February 22, 1990, NEPE, chrono files.

³⁴⁹ Stephanie Toothman, interview with author, August 24, 1995.

³⁵⁰ Regional Director to Director, May 31, 1990, NEPE, Additions Study files.

³⁵¹ Press Release, "Nez Perce Tribe Applauds Bill to Save Historical Sites," June 28, 1990, NEPE, Additions Study files.

³⁵² Resolution 1994-344, no date, NEPE, Resource Management files, Nez Perce Tribe.

³⁵³ Charles H. Hayes to Eddie Palmanteer, Jr., August 11, 1994, NEPE, Resource Management files, Nez Perce Tribe.

³⁵⁴ W. Otis Halfmoon, comments on draft, July 18, 1996.

³⁵⁵ Sue Buchel, Record of Telephone Conversation with Patty Wren of the Wenatchee World, October 8, 1991, NEPE, Administrative Files, L58 Proposed Areas - New Additions, Wallowa.

³⁵⁶ Charles H. Hayes to Les Aucoin, May 8, 1990, NEPE, Administrative Files, L58 Proposed Areas - New Additions, Wallowa.

³⁵⁷ U.S. Congress, Senate, Nez Perce National Historical Park, 101st Cong., 2d sess., Report 101-494, October 3, 1990, p. 3.

³⁵⁸ U.S. Congress, House, S.2804, in the House of Representatives, 101st Cong., 2d sess., October 18, 1990.

³⁵⁹ Nez Perce National Historical Parks Chronology, no date, BSU, Larry LaRocco Papers, MSS 139.

³⁶⁰ Congressional Record, House, June 29, 1992, p. H5354.

³⁶¹ Ibid.

³⁶² Frank Walker, interview with author, July 21, 1995; Seattle Post-Intelligencer, September 24, 1992. Hatfield's opposition to the bill stemmed from his longstanding policy of refusing to sponsor any legislation that was opposed by county commissioners in Oregon. The Wallowa County commissioners supported the condominium development as a needed source of revenue and were adamantly opposed to any additional federal land ownership within the county. (Stephanie Toothman, comments on draft, March 18, 1996.)

³⁶³ Eddie Palmanteer, Jr. to Brock Adams, October 6, 1992, NEPE, Additions Study files.

³⁶⁴ Frank Walker, interview with author, July 21, 1995.

³⁶⁵ Congressional Record, October 8, 1992, p. S17860.

³⁶⁶ National Park Service, Mission 66 for Big Hole National Monument, [1957], Robert Burns papers.

³⁶⁷ Mission 66 was the National Park Service's answer to growing public use of the national park system in the first decade after World War II: proposed by the Eisenhower administration and approved by Congress in 1956, it constituted a ten-year program of development to conclude in 1966 on the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the National Park Service.

³⁶⁸ Robert L. Burns, interview with author, July 22, 1995; Burns to Howard Baker, [1968?], NEPE, chrono files.

³⁶⁹ National Park Service, Big Hole National Battlefield Statement for Management, November 1992, pp. 5, 10.

³⁷⁰ Sue Buchel, interview with author, October 23, 1995.

³⁷¹ Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region to Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, October 19, 1992, NEPE, Administrative files, L58 Proposed Areas - New Additions, Wallowa.

³⁷² Frank Walker, comments on draft, February 26, 1996.

³⁷³ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Unit Organization Concept, no date, NEPE, library.

³⁷⁴ Ibid.

³⁷⁵ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1993, CCSO, library DSC microfiche reports, NEPE D34.

³⁷⁶ Staff organization charts, February 1995, NEPE, library.

³⁷⁷ Sue Buchel, interview with author, October 23, 1995.

³⁷⁸ Frank Walker, interview with author, July 21, 1995; Frank Walker, comments on draft, February 26, 1996.

³⁷⁹ Superintendent to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, Superintendent, Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site, and Associate Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, September 1, 1993, NEPE, Administrative Files, A3815 Public Relations - Nez Perce Tribe; Sue Buchel, interview with author, October 23, 1995; Frank Walker, interview with author, July 21, 1995.

³⁸⁰ Nez Perce National Historical Park General Management Plan, NEPE, Administrative Files, A4021, Nez Perce NHP Meetings, Park Partners Annual Meetings.