North Cascades An Ethnographic Overview and Assessment of North Cascades National Park Service Complex

(Those entries not annotated are discussed in the text of the report.)

Albright, Sylvia

1992 Archaeological Report for Nlakapamux Nation Tribal Council. Lytton, B.C.

Amoss, Pamela T.

1972 The Persistence of Aboriginal Beliefs and Practices Among the Nooksack Coast Salish. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Anthropology. Seattle: University of Washington.

Some useful discussion in the section entitled: "The Historical Background," as it relates to territory, trade, and village sites. In her section on Nooksack history, Amoss (p. 8) notes that the traditional territory extended from the Nooksack River drainage to the lower reaches of Mt. Baker. Hunting territories lay between the Skagit and Samish Rivers in the west and abutted the territories of the Thompson and Upper Skagit to the east (pp. 8-9). Amoss (p. 10) cites Fetzer (1951) when referring to Nooksack affinal relations being among the Kwantlen, Langley, Matsqui, Sumas, Chilliwack, Lummi, Skagit and Swinomish. Reference is also made to mountain goat hunting on the lower slopes of Mt. Baker (p. 11). Elk were also hunted near Mt. Baker (p. 12). Blueberry picking in the alpine meadows of Mt. Baker is noted (p. 14).

1978 Coast Salish Spirit Dancing. The Survival of An Ancestral Religion. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Similar to the 1972 selection noted above. Chapter 1, entitled "The Nooksack People," contains overview information of Nooksack territory (pp. 3-41). Nooksack population in mid 1800 is estimated at 1000 (p. 3).

Avard, Charles

1872 Papers of Stephen, Julia and Charles Avard, 1872-1956. Manuscript Collection, Washington State University Library. Pullman, WA.

Barnett, Homer G.

1939 Culture Element Distributions: Coast Salish. University of California Publications in Anthropology. Berkeley.

Boas, Franz

1894 The Indian Tribes of the Lower Fraser River. In On the North-Western Tribes of Canada. Report of the 64th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

1922 James A. Teit. American Anthropologist, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 490-492.

Bouchard, Randy

1973 How to Write the Thompson Language. British Columbia Indian Language Project. Victoria, B.C.

Bouchard, Randy and Dorothy Kennedy

1977 Lillooet Stories. Sound Heritage. Vol. 5, No. 1. Provincial Archives of British Columbia.

A selection of stories as told by Charlie Mack and Baptiste Ritchie of the Mount Currie Indian Reserve. Some background information of spiritual uses of mountain areas by pubescent Lillooet boys and girls by "sweatbathing, running, purging themselves with medicine, and praying in order to receive power" (p. 3). The construction of an underground house is described (pp. 62-63). General descriptions of hunting and fishing in Lillooet areas are provided with emphasis on deer hunting (pp. 64-71). Important food plants are discussed (pp. 73-75).

1984 Indian History and Knowledge of the Lower Similkeen River-Palmer Lake Area. Draft Report to the Army Corp of Engineers. British Columbia Indian Language Project, Victoria, B.C.

Though not specifically within the study area, this report notes important mountain use by interior groups. Organized mountain goat hunts and "mountain sheep" drives are explained (pp. 33-35). Marmot hunting is also noted (p. 35). Informants recall that "young people would go up to the summit of this mountain [Mt. Chopaka] to train for guardian spirit power (p. 84).

Boxberger, Daniel L.

1979 Handbook of Western Washington Indian Treaties: With Special Attention to Treaty Fishing Rights. Contributions to Aquaculture and Fisheries No. 1. Lummi College of Fisheries. Lummi Island, WA.

1987 The Dispossessed: Indian Homesteaders in the Sauk-Suiattle River Valleys. Paper presented at the Meetings of the American Society for Ethnohistory, Oakland, CA.

1988 The Indian Homestead Act: An Ethnohistorical Analysis. Paper presented at the Meetings of the American Anthropological Association. Phoenix, AZ.

1989 To Fish in Common: The Ethnohistory of Lummi Indian Salmon Fishing. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

1994 Sauk-Suiattle. In Native America in the 20th Century. Mary B. Davis, ed. NY: Garland Publishing Co.

Brown, William C

1914 Old Fort Okanogan and the Okanogan Trail. Oregon Historical Quarterly, 15:1-38.

Brown (p. 13) mentions an exploring group camping at the mouth of the Methow River. He reports that Indians assembled in great numbers, and that it was an excellent fishing spot.

Bruseth, Nels

1972 Indian Stories and Legends of the Stillaguamish, Sauks and Allied Tribes. Fairfield, Washington: Ye Galleon Press.

Based on personal observation and acquaintance with Sauks, Skagits and Suiattles, the author provides a general sketch of these groups. Bruseth (p. 6) mentions that the Skagit, Sauk and Suiattle peoples interacted with eastern groups, especially the Chelans and Wenatchi. Chelans and Wenatchi fished, hunted and had summer camps far west of their usual territory (p. 13). A fight between Sauks and eastern Indians over hunting territory near Monte Cristo Lake is mentioned as well (p. 13). Chiwawas and Stehekins also came over to fish, hunt, dig roots and pick berries (p. 13). Bruseth (p. 18) notes that the writings of the 1870 railroad survey party indicate that Sauks and Suiattles were on good terms with eastern tribes, and that they knew well the routes of travel in the Columbia and Chelan country. Two Sauk men guided a party to Lake Chelan into the Stehekin and Agnes Creek country. From this trip it was determined that White or Kingsly Pass were the most practical east/west routes (p. 18).

Burmaster, Violet

1931 History of Skagit County. Special Collections Suzzallo Library, University of Washington. Seattle.

An Historical sketch of Skagit County, mostly focussing on the lower Skagit River area. Outlines early Euroamerican settlers and their occupations. Some of the settlers married native women.

Campbell, Lyle and Marianne Mithun, editors

1979 The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. University of Texas Press: Austin.

Linguistic overview of the Salishan language family with an extensive bibliography.

Chalfant, Stuart A.

1957 Aboriginal Land Use and Occupancy by the Lake, Colville, Sanpoil, Nespelem, okanogan and Methow Indians. Report of the Indian Claims Commission, Washington, D.C.

1957 A Report on Anthropological and Ethnohistorical Material Relative to Aboriginal Land use and Occupancy by the Columbia Salish of Central Washington. Report of the Indian Claims Commission, Washington, D.C.

1957 A Report on Anthropological and Ethnohistorical Material Relative to Aboriginal Land use and Occupancy by the Wenatchi Salish of Central Washington. Report of the Indian Claims Commission, Washington, D.C.

Important references as noted in the main text, these Claims Commission documents provide primary references.

Coleman, Edward T.

1869 Mountaineering on the Pacific. Harpers New Monthly Magazine, No. 39, pp. 793-817.

Account of the ascent of Mt. Baker with Nooksack guides via the Middle Fork of the Nooksack River.

Collins, Janet

1993 Jurisdictional and Boundary Changes of the North Cascades National Park Complex, 1891 to 1968. In Pacific Northwest: Papers in Honor of James W. Scott. Howard J. Critichfield, ed. Center for Pacific Northwest Studies, Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA.

Collins, June M.

1946 A Study of Religious Change Among the Skagit Indians of Western Washington. Report Submitted to Indian Claims Commission, Washington, D.C.

Collins (p. 673) writes of the groups living up-river from Lyman as having had frequent contact with the Methow, Okanogan, Sanpoil, Nespelem and Kittitas. This was sustained through intermarriage and subsequent ceremonial gift exchange. A man named sk'ubébt'kud is said to have carried the Christian religion over Sauk Pass into the Skagit Valley. It appears this man had, at some point in time met Father Chirouse (p. 682). According to Indian Agent, George Vaux Jr.'s report for 1880, John Campbell, the son of sk'ubébt'kud, led a small band of Upper Skagit who refused to conform to White ways and live on reservations. These people were in close contact with native people east of the Cascades (p. 693).

1974 Valley of the Spirits. The Upper Skagit Indians of Western Washington. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.

A standard ethnography of this Coast Salish group, Collins discusses issues of relevance such as travel and trade, religion, early contact with Euroamericans, and subsistence use areas. Collins (p. 5) notes that Upper Skagit territory was bordered by the Thompson peoples and the valley of the Nooksack River to the north. Collins (pp. 14-15) notes that the Thompson came overland into Upper Skagit country via the Fraser and Skagit Rivers. Also mentioned is the travel across the Cascade mountains to visit relatives in the Plateau (p. 6). This surely took the travellers through the study area. Intermarriage with the Chilliwack may also imply Upper Skagit access to resources within the study area (p. 11). Intermarriage with eastern groups such as the Okanogan, Methow, and Wenatchi also may imply use of the study area as does the Upper Skagit canoe that remained hidden on Lake Chelan (p. 13). Collins' map on page 17 clearly indicates Upper Skagit villages within the Ross Lake National Recreation Area. Specific villages and houses within or adjacent to the study area are then described (pp. 18-20).

Collins (p. 50) mentions a site above Marblemount on the Skagit River where humpback salmon were speared. One of the farthest villages upriver was k'^wabacáb. It too was near Marblemount (p. 84). Some Upper Skagit relatives living between Wenatchee and Lake Chelan are also mentioned (Collins 1974b:85). Collins (p. 152) writes of a spirit song one of her informants learned while at Lake Chelan. The myth of s.q^wedíli_ also deals with crossing the Cascades and visiting the Okanogan (pp. 158-59). The culture hero is described by Collins (p. 211) as converting an old woman into an odd-shaped stone near Portage on the Skagit River. She became known as grandmother ky ?. She was in charge of fishing grounds north of the junction of the Skagit and Cascade Rivers. This is a useful source as it contains several references to activity very near or within the study area.

1948 Aboriginal Habits [Habitat] of Upper Skagit, Suiattle-Sauk, Skykomish and Snoqualmie. Report Submitted to the Indian Claims Commission, Washington, D.C.

Curtis, Edward S.

1911 Salishan Tribes of the Interior. In The North American Indian, Vol.7. NY: Johnson Reprint Series.

Custer, Henry [edited by Harry Majors]

1984 Discovery of Mount Shuksan and the Upper Nooksack River, June 1859. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 5, No. 21.

Custer's 1859 report of surveying the Canadian border. Major notes that Custer mapped the North Cascade border area in 1857, before he surveyed these areas. Majors notes that this earlier map was probably drawn by a "Nooksack Indian" (p. 22). This map notes a trail from the lower Nooksack River to Lake Sumas (p. 22). Custer's 1859 trip included eleven Indian guides, one of which was a "Somohna Indian" [known as Thiusoloc] (p. 30). The survey narrative incorporates native place names most likely from Thiusoloc. Most major features, watersheds and features are well known to the Indian team suggesting thorough familiarity with alpine areas and high passes. No reference is given of any Indian names being "invented" by the party. Thiusoloc notes an important camp site at high elevation near Bald Mountain and hunts marmots here (pp. 36-37). Custer describes the taking of a bear as a "bear fest" near Silver Lake with a reference to trail from Chiliwack River to Silver Lake (p. 45). A "small indian trail" is described [the same one as just mentioned?] leading from the Nooksack to Cultus Lake via Pekosky [Silver] Lake (p. 56). Indian informants tell Custer of gold in [Glacier Creek] (p. 61). Custer explores a swampy prairie of the Nooksack [near Mt. Baker-Hannagen Pass Road junction?] and is told by his guide this area is considered the head of the Nooksack (p. 68).

1984 First Crossing of the Picket Range. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 5. No. 22.

Narrative of Henry Custer's exploration and survey of the Chilliwack and Whatcom Pass areas with the aid of Samona [Upper Chilliwack] and other native guides (p. 119). Some general references to the native knowledge of the routes and geography of the North Cascades (pp. 104,119). A seasonal Samona fishing camp is noted at the mouth of Slesse Creek (p. 122). Mt. Challenger is referred to as "Wila-kin-ghaist" (p. 151).

Dahl, Kathleen

1990 Sovereignty, Environmental Use and Ethnic Identity on the Colville Indian Reservation. Ph.D. Dissertation in Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

Deutsch, Herman J.

1956 Indian and White in the Inland Empire; The Contest for Land, 1880-1912. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 47: 44-51.

Deutsch discusses land and government policies affecting natives and settlers east of the Cascades. Some discussion of the Moses Reservation bordering the Cascade crest. Deutsch notes that mining interests led to the return of Moses land to public domain status in 1886 (p. 49). Indian autonomy eroded with the introduction of laws permitting the sale of Moses allotments (p. 50).

1960 The Evolution of the International Boundary in the Inland Empire of the Pacific Northwest. Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 63-79.

Mostly political and historic information on the border. A vague reference to the arbitrary demarcation of historically coherent native groups on page 77. Deutsch concludes, "An awareness of the existence of a political cleavage wrought by a boundary should pervade every study of the various facets of the region's history" (p.79).

1962 A Contemporary Report on the 49th Boundary Survey. Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol. 1, pp. 17-33.

A review of the difficulties encountered in determining the U.S. Canadian Border along the mountains of Washington, and history of specific survey expeditions. Only one reference to Indians and land use. The Cascades are noted as "of little or no present value except as hunting grounds for the Indians, and they are even very partially penetrated by those people" (p.26).

Drucker, Philip

1950 Culture Element Distribution: Northwest Coast. University of California Publications., Berkeley.

Duff, Wilson

1952 The Upper Stalo Indians of the Fraser River of British Columbia. Anthropology in British Columbia. Memoir Number 1. Victoria: Provincial Museum of British Columbia.

Duff arranges this work, done under the sponsorship of the Provincial Museum, in sections dealing with virtually all aspects of Stalo life. Especially useful for this project are the discussions concerning trade with neighboring groups, the food quest, spiritual sojourns, and social organization. Duff (p. 11) mentions trade and intermarriage with neighboring groups such as the Lillooet and Lower Thompson. Also noted is that the Stalo peoples used the lower 105 miles of the Fraser River for subsistence purposes during the entire year (p. 16).

1964 The Indian History of British Columbia. The Impact of the White Man. Vol. I, Anthropology in British Columbia, Memoir Number 5. Provincial Museum of British Columbia, Victoria, B.C.

Dwelley, Charles M. ed.

1979 Skagit Memories. Mount Vernon: Skagit County Historical Society.

John P. McGlinn writes about an 1876 Trip up the Skagit River from La Conner in which the hired Skagit guides expressed fear of the "Stick" Indians upriver (p. 21). U.S. military patrols of the Skagit after gold was found in Ruby Creek eventually broke organized Indian action against whites. While crossing Cascade Pass, Henry Pierce in 1882 writes about stopping at an old Indian camp along the Cascade River, two log canoes, and an Indian camp at the mouth of the [Cascade] river (pp. 65-66). Frank Davis recalls moving to a homestead along the Cascade River in 1890, and living near an Indian camp occupied by the Moses family (p. 115). Edward Goodell describes the Skagit tribe in 1881 as having a population of 400 and being the remnant of a "once powerful tribe" (p. 146). Two Skagit chiefs, John Campbell and John Quwoitkin, are said to have an "almost absolute" control over the tribe (p. 146). The Skagit claim, "all land above the Sauk River on the Skagit as their home (p. 147). Goodell describes Quwoitkin's "potlatch house" near the Baker River (p. 149).

Elmendorf, William W.

1963 Linguistic and Geographic Relations in the Northern Plateau Area. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 21:63-78.

A linguistic analysis of the Interior Salish speech community. A movement of language is noted from west to east and southeast across the intermontane plateau of British Columbia into the Columbia River area and western Montana.

Fetzer, Paul

1950 Ethnographic Report on the Nooksack. Testimony in the Indians Claims Commission, Washington, D.C.

Fraser, David and Daniel Farr

1989 An Archaeological Resource Overview Assessment of Southwestern British Columbia. Antiquus Consultants, Mapleridge, B.C. Frontier Book No. 19

1977 The Dewdney Trail: Hope to Rock Creek. Calgary, AB: Frontier Publishing.

Galloway, Brent

1979 Upriver Halq'emeylem Ethnobotany. Coqualeetza Centre, Sardis, B.C.

Gibbs, George

1855 Indian Tribes of Washington Territory of Washington. In I. I. Stevens, Report of Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad, near the Forty-Seventh and Forty-Ninth Parallels of North Latitude from St. Paul to Puget Sound. 36th Congress, 1st Session, House Executive Document No. 56, XII, Book 1.

1855 Sketch of the Country between the Skagit and Okinakane and Columbia Rivers. National Archives Record Group 76. Washington, D.C.

Gunther, Erna

1950 The Indian Background of Washington History. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 41:189-202.

Gunther's article is a very general introduction and overview of the native groups of Washington. Gunther notes the seasonal use of mountain resources by tribes, and uses the Yakima as an example (p. 193). Gunther suggests that traits of the Plains Indians, such as dress, use of horses, and socio-cultural attitudes diffused to Eastern Washington (pp. 195-202).

Hale, Linda L. and Jean Barman

1991 British Columbia Local Histories: A Bibliography. Victoria: British Columbia Library Association.

An extensive listing of British Columbian community and historical studies.

Harris, Ethel Van Fleet

1932 Early Historical Incidents of Skagit County. MS in Special Collections. Seattle: University of Washington.

A collection of transcribed newspaper articles and letters related by Otto Klement in the 1920s. Details an expedition over Cascade Pass to the Methow Valley in search of gold. They were guided by a Skagit named Joe Seaam. Seaam not only was familiar with the trail but also had the canoes cached at the head of Lake Chelan. Seaam also led the party to an Indian trading post on the Columbia River run by Wapato John to restock their provisions. Also recounts an excursion up the Skagit River and Ruby Creek as far as the confluence of Granite and Canyon Creeks.

Harris, R.C.

1982 Old Pack Trails in the Cascade Wilderness. Summerland, B.C.: The Okanogan-Similkameen Parks Society.

Descriptions of historical trails in the Manning Provincial Park Area. Not much information on aboriginal use of the area provided. The author notes the Blackeye Trail is an example of in Indian route later adopted by other users. Indians used this particular trail to hunt marmots and access "Similkameen hunting grounds up Podunk Valley" (p. 5).

1991 Early Trails. Reflections of the Past Manning Park Memories. pp. 20-29. Victoria, B.C.: Ministry of Parks.

Hatfield, H.R.

1974 The Brigrade Trail. Beaver, Outfit 305, No. 1, pp. 38-43.

Hewes, Gordon

1973 Indian Fisheries Productivity in Pre-Contact Times in the Pacific Salmon Area. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 7(2) : 133-155.

Estimates of salmon Pacific Northwest salmon runs including areas within the study area (p. 136-141). Hewes notes a decline in Indian salmon catches prior to extensive commercial fishing (p. 145).

Hill-Tout, Charles

1899 Notes on the N'tlaka'pamuQ of British Columbia, a Branch of the Great Salish stock of North America. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Vol. 69, pp. 500-584.

1902 Ethnological Studies of the Mainland Halkomelem: The Tcilqeuk. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Vol. 72, pp. 355-490.

Hill-Tout, Charles [edited with introduction by Ralph Maud]

1978 The Salish People. The Local Contribution of Charles Hill-Tout. Volume I: The Thompson and the Okanagan. Vancouver: Talonbooks.

Thompson village distribution is noted (pp. 41-43). Regarding shared resource lands, the author explains, "hunting, fishing, and berry grounds of the Thompson were common property" only after the "Feast of First Fruits" had been held (p. 46). "Ceremonial" use of "the top of some hill or eminence" is noted by the author (p. 59). Hill-Tout describes the "formerly occupied" village distribution of the Okanogan people (p. 131)

1978 The Salish People. The Local Contribution of Charles Hill-Tout. Volume II: The Squamish and the Lillooet. Vancouver: Talonbooks.

Some specific references to mountain uses are noted. A reference is made to a "lofty mountain cleft" which saved people from a flood (p. 103). Hill-Tout notes male puberty "seclusion" rituals where the initiate "retired to the woods or mountains and sought his snam [personal/spiritual skill or totem] or sulia" (p. 113). Similarly, "it is not unusual for the young widower to go apart into the forest for a year after the death of his wife, and purify himself" (p. 115). Hill-Tout mentions an especially revealing example of mountain goat hunting. A hunter carried a "stout climbing stick [tleakaten]" to assist in steep climbs (p. 122). This particular stick was twenty-four feet long and used as a direct climbing aid on cliffs and overhangs, according to Hill-Tout's informant (p. 123). A traditional story relating to goat hunting and totems is explained, and a reference to a "goat dance" is noted (pp. 127-128, 131). The "Myth of the Origin of the Mountain-goat Kin" is presented (p. 139). In the story of "Nkwinkwinkein, the Gambler," the main character is told to "go and visit the gambling man who lives far off in the mountains" (p. 147). In another mountain reference story, a boy "kicks the mountain so hard" that a landslide is caused which is visible to the present (p. 151).

1978 The Salish People. The Local Contribution of Charles Hill-Tout. Volume III: The Mainland Halkomelem. Vancouver: Talonbooks.

Hill-Tout provides background ethnographic information on the Chilliwack (pp. 40-43). A myth about the origin of Chilliwack River is presented, in which a youth considered Cultus Lake a "training-ground" for acquiring spiritual powers (p. 41). A similar story is mentioned regarding Cultus Lake in the "Origin of the Tlukel Sulia" story (p. 56). Mounds are noted "on the mountain slopes overlooking Sumas Lake" (p. 91).

Hodges, Lawrence K.

1896 How a Prospector Lives. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1980, pp. 192-207

A short descriptive narrative of mining in the Cascades by Euroamericans around the turn of the century.

Hunn, Eugene

1990 Nch'i-wana: The Mid-Columbia Indians. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Jeffcott, P.R.

1949 Nooksack Tales and Trails. Sedro-Woolley: Courier Times.

The author notes gold finds first originated near the mouth of Nicomen Creek on the Fraser by natives (p. 58). A trail to the Fraser River from Bellingham Bay is noted as "used by the natives probably for many generations" (pp. 60-62).

Jenkins, Will D.

1984 Last Frontier, North Cascades: Tales of the Wild Upper Skagit. Skagit County Historical Society.

Selected stories of development mainly along the Skagit River Valley. The author mentions that according to one Skagit native, Diablo Canyon was a "bad" place "to be avoided" because of earlier conflict between the Skagits and the "Steeks" who raided from Canada (p.124).

Jorgensen, Joseph G.

1969 Salish Language and Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Kappler, Charles

1904 Indian Laws and Treaties, Vol. II. Washington, D.C. United States Government Printing Office.

Kinkade. M. Dale

1967 On the Identification of the Methows (Salish). International Journal of American Linguistics 33:193-197.

A linguistic analysis of the Methow. Limited reference to land use. Kinkade notes the Methow traditionally occupied the Methow Valley and land west of the Okanogan River between the towns "Malott and Monse" (p. 194). The Methow inhabited mountainous terrain but "intercourse...was quite frequent" between the two areas (p. 194). A Methow place name above Early Winters Creek is noted (p. 196).

Klement, Otto

1877 See Stone 1983.

Knight, Rolf

1978 Indians At Work. Vancouver, B.C.: New Star Books.

Knight focuses on the significance of Indian labor in British Columbia from 1850-1930. Limited information relating specifically to the study area. Indian farming and ranching peaked around 1890-1900 than declined due to imposed restrictions such as grazing permits (pp. 71-72). Indian ranching developed in the Cariboo, Nicola Plateau, and Okanagan by 1890 (p. 74). "Sporadic" logging occurred on the Nicola Plateau and on the Okanagan Reserve around 1900 (p. 119). The Fraser area gold rush began in 1958, bringing mostly American miners to B.C., however Indians had recovered substantial amounts of gold along the Thompson River prior to 1853 (p. 131). No specific gold mining references to the study area exist. In 1860 homestead legislation was enacted dramatically affecting Indian groups' access to resources (p. 236). Indian workers helped construct the C.P.R. and C.N.R. rail lines from Hope south and along the Thompson and Fraser Valleys, however the author has little information on the participation of specific tribal groups (p. 140).

Laforet, Andrea

1980 Spuzzum: An Introduction to the Ethnography of a Lower Thompson Village. Report prepared for NLakapamux Band Council.

Linsley, D.C.

1870 Lake Chelan and Agnes Creek in 1870: A Journey up Lake Chelan by Indian Canoe. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 2, No. 6, pp. 382-401.

Description of survey expedition up the Columbia River from Wenatchee trading post, to Lake Chelan and the Stehekin River. Linsley describes meeting Wenatchi Chief Moses and notes that he, "has wide influence over other tribes than his own" (p. 382). The expedition passes a trading post run by a Chelan named "Wappito John" [nic-ter-whil-i-cum] north of the mouth of the Entiat River (p. 384). The expedition notes a party of twenty Indians about halfway up Lake Chelan traveling to the head of the lake to gather service berries (p. 388). Fifteen miles from [Stehekin], the party obtained 2 Chelan guides and an additional canoe (p. 388). Linsley notes Cascade Pass saying, "the Indians of the Upper Skagit come over this route every year into the Chelan Valley and report a Pass which can nearly be reached by canoes from the west" (p. 390). Linsley also notes that Indians informed him of a route up [Agnes Creek] to [Kaiwhat Pass] at the head of Kaiwhat [Sulphur] Creek (p. 391).

Linsley, D.C.

1981 A Railroad Survey of the Sauk and Wenatchee Rivers in 1870. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 112-164.

Narrative of Linsley's journey up the Skagit, Sauk, Suiattle Valleys in 1870. Linsley used Indian guides to navigate up Suiattle River to examine Kaiwhat Pass, and up the North Fork Sauk to Indian and Linsley Passes. Linsley met with Skagit Chief Sosumkin and procured river canoes (p. 210). Linsley notes an "indian trail" to Bellingham Bay [along the S. Fork Nooksack] from the Skagit Valley (pp. 214, 238). Baker River is identified as "Novcultum" by the Indian guides (p. 216). Linsley is directed to examine [Indian Pass] as the most feasible route from the Skagit to the Columbia (pp. 218, 233, 242). Linsley visited the Sauk village of Whowetkin. Linsley notes that previously the Suiattle trail over Kaiwhat Pass was heavily used during the height of fur trading with Fort Okanogan (p. 224). The poling of canoes down white water stretches of the Suiattle is recorded by Linsley (p. 230). Linsley travels an Indian trail near Prairie Mountain overlooking the Sauk Prairie area (ibid: 232). The spearing of river salmon is observed (p. 235). The party camped at an "old indian hut" near the mouth of Falls Creek (p. 237). Salmon catching and processing by large indian camp is observed at the mouth of Tumwater Canyon (p. 256).

Longmire, David

1917 First Immigrants to Cross the Cascades. Washington Historical Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 22-27.

Narrative of a party of settlers that crossed White Pass in 1853. A conflict with Chief Moses is described following the death of a white settler (p. 28).

Luxenberg, Gretchen A.

1986 Historic Resource Study: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington. Seattle, National Park Service.

Majors, Harry M.

1974 North Cascades Archival Resources in Washington State Repositories. Special Collections, Suzzallo Library, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.

A listing of Cascade Mountain related archival materials located in regional libraries, Historical Society locations, universities, and land management agencies.

1982 Northwest Discovery 2 (5).

Several Articles on Goat Lake and Sauk knowledge and use of the area.

1983 Alfred Downing's Misadventure on the Columbia River in 1880. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 4-33.

Narrative of Downing's travels along the Columbia River around the Chelan area.

1983 Backus Explores the Twisp and Methow Valleys. August- September 1883. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 34-80.

Masterson, James R.

1946 The Records of the Washington Superintendency of Indian Affairs, 1853-1874. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 37: 31-57.

An examination of archive information available regarding Native policy and administration.

Maud, Ralph

1982 A Guide to B. C. Indian Myth and Legend. Vancouver, British Columbia: Talonbooks.

Background information to Northwest Coast myth scholars and ethnographers.

Merk, Frederick, editor

1931 Fur Trade and Empire. George Simpson's Journal. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

George Simpson's narrative of Northwest travels includes some vague references to the study area, including names of Columbia and Fraser River tribes (p. 168-169) and mention of mountain sheep and goat products (p. 118). Simpson notes a route to Puget Sound "not exceeding six or eight days march with small canoes," known to the "Tribe" of the Pischahouse [Wenatchee] River (p. 52).

Mierendorf, Robert R.

1986 People of the North Cascades. National Park Service, Seattle, WA.

1987 A Progress Report on Archaeology of the Upper Skagit River Valley, North Cascades Range, Washington. National Park Service, Seattle, WA.

1988 Technical Summary Results of an Intensive Cultural Resources Survey in the Upper Skagit River Basin. National Park Service, Seattle, WA.

1989 Technical Summary Results of an Intensive Cultural Resources Survey in the Upper Skagit River Basin. National Park Service, Seattle, WA.

1991 Final report of Intensive and Reconnaissance-Level Archaeological Surveys in the Upper Skagit River Basin, Washington. Report for Seattle City Light by National Park Service Staff. National Park Service, Seattle, WA.

1993 Chert Procurement in the Upper Skagit River Valley of the Northern Cascade Range. National Park Service, Seattle, WA.

Merriam, H.C. and T.W. Symons

1879 Report of an Examination of the Upper Columbia River. United States Army Corps of Engineers, 1882. Washington, D.C.

Murray, Keith A.

1961 The Role of the Hudson's Bay Company in Pacific Northwest History. Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 24-30.

The central thesis to this article is Murray's assertion that The HBC, "made little or no deliberate effort to impose European customs" on Indian or other groups (p. 25). Murray notes that the HBC extended protection to Indian trade groups and punished offensives against such groups by other Indians (p. 25). Murray notes that European traders utilized Indian routes and infrastructure (p. 27). American dissatisfaction with the HBC had led to some rethinking of the extent of southern influence enjoyed by HBC in the Northwest. Early American historians were "reluctant" to credit HBC development (p. 30).

1965 Building a Wagon Road Through the Northern Cascade Mountains. Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 49-56.

Murray recalls the first organized European expeditions across the Cascades. The idea for a North Cascades road was initiated in 1893 (p. 50). Roads were also proposed over Cascade, Austin, and Hannagen Passes. No specific references to Indian routes, however the author notes that Alexander Ross utilized two "Indian guides" to cross over Cascade Pass (p. 49).

Norton, Helen H.

1979 The Association Between Anthropogenic Prairies and the Important Food Plants in Western Washington. Northwest Anthropology Research Notes 13 (2): 175-200.

A discussion of native modification in prairie areas of western Washington. Most examples are of south Puget Sound areas, however the information implies widespread use of fire and clearing techniques to generate prairie areas for hunting and food gathering. No specific references to the study area.

Overmeyer, Philip Henry

1941 George McClellan and the Pacific Northwest. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 32:3-60.

Overmeyer describes McClellan's explorations and surveys of possible railroad routes to Puget Sound from the east. Most travelling occurs south of Mt. Rainier. The naming of Mt. Stuart is explained (p. 31). An Indian guide demarcates Yakima and Snoqualmie territory near Snoqualmie Pass (p. 35). McClellan meets "Quiltanee, a chief of the Spokane indians" (p. 39), who informs McClellen of a "steep and bad foot-trail" leading to the Skagit River [Cascade Pass] (p. 41).

Palmer, Gary

1975 Cultural Ecology in the Canadian Plateau: Pre-Contact to the Early Contact Period in the Territory of the Southern Shuswap Indians of British Columbia. Northwest Anthropological Resource Notes, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 199-245.

An examination of Shuswap environmental adaptation in the Canadian plateau with emphasis on the eventual disruption of Shuswap social systems due to outside influence on native resources. No specific references to the study area, but the use of diverse environments is noted as is the ability of groups to utilize secondary resources when primary resources, such as salmon or berry crops, were insufficient.

1978 Cultural Ecology in the Canadian Plateau: Estimates os Shuswap Indian Salmon Resources in Pre-Contact Times. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 12 (1): 5-11.

Estimates of pre-contact Thompson/Fraser River sockeye salmon runs based on Indian fishing catches during the 1940's. The author notes aboriginal runs could have been much greater.

Parsons, J.C.

1894 Map of Skagit County, Washington. Mount Vernon: Skagit County.

Pearsall, Marion

1949 Contributions of the Early Explorers and Traders to the Ethnography of the Northwest. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 40:316-326.

A summary of important expeditions and explorers in the Northwest and selected ethnographic data beginning with Alexander MacKenzie in 1793.

Pierce, Henry H. [edited by Harry Majors]

1982 An Army Expedition Across the North Cascades in August 1882. Part l. Okanogan Valley to the Skagit River. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 112-164.

A narrative of the Pierce Military Expedition from Okanogan Lake to Lake Chelan and the Skagit Valley. The Party followed Indian routes from Okanagan Valley west to Lake Chelan via the Twisp River and up the Stehekin Valley to Cascade Pass and down the Skagit and Cascade river valleys. The party notes an "indian ranch" near the Chiliwist Creek (p. 6). The party travelled a "well-worn [Indian] trail" leading to the Methow (pp. 8, 11). Another Indian trail is noted leading to Little Bridge Creek up the Twisp River (pp. 12, 16). The author notes the Indian guide's ability to route-find (p. 16). The party is lead over a high pass [War Creek Pass] to the Chelan/Stehekin watershed (pp. 24-28). The part travels over "a most imperfect" [Indian] trail up the Stehekin Valley (p. 36). An "often used" Indian bridge is described, made of logs and cedar-bark lashings (p. 42). The party crosses Cascade Pass and continues down the Cascade River Valley on the Indian routes (pp. 56-58). The party utilizes an Indian camp west of Marble Creek (p. 58). Two log canoes are spotted along the Cascade River (p. 58). The party follows the south side of the Cascade River to a summer lodge at the river's mouth (pp. 65-67).

1982 Army Exploration of the Chelan Area, 1853-1883. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 89-111.

A continuation of the Pierce Expedition narrative, with notes and background information provided by Majors.

1982 Fort Colville to the Okanogan Valley. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 112-164.

Edited by Harry M. Majors, this article presents the 1882 Pierce Expedition with notes and background information, including a summary of McClellan's earlier explorations of the Chelan area in search of a railroad pass across the Cascades. Both McClellan and Pierce were directed by Indian guides over War Creek and Cascade Passes (p. 89).

1882 Report of an Expedition from Fort Colville to Puget Sound, Washington Territory, by way of Lake Chelan and the Skagit River During the Months of August and September, 1882. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.

Pierce's 1882 narrative of a military sponsored expedition from Fort Spokane, up Lake Chelan to Cascade Pass and eventually to the Skagit River. Pierce was one of first Euroamericans to document this route. Pierce comments on the skills of his native guide Joe La Fleur (p. 6). The trail westward through San Poil territory is noted as "highway since time immemorial" (p. 8). Pierce crosses from the Methow drainage to the Stehekin River Valley on Indian routes, guided by natives. Pierce writes that the Stehekin River Valley and north end of Lake Chelan are "evidently unknown except to Indians" (p. 18). A native-built foot bridge is described (p. 20). The party crosses Cascade Pass and camps in the Cascade River Valley at "Indian" camps (p. 23). An Indian settlement is noted at the mouth of the Cascade River.

Pierce, Henry H. [edited by Harry Majors]

1982 Exploring the Kettle Range: The Pierce Expedition of 1882. Northwest Discovery, Vol. 3, No. 2.

Descriptions of Lake Chelan, Okanogan Valley, and Kettle mountains, as recorded by the Pierce Expedition. Some interactions with Indians are noted, but information is not very specific to the study area. Pictographs at North end of Chelan are described as ancient, made by the people who, "lived long before" the Chelan (p. 95). The east-west trail along the San-puelle River is noted by Pierce as a "highway for Indians since time immemorial" (p. 129). Remnants of a fishing camp are noted high up the San-puelle River (p. 129). The party encounters the home of "E-ne-as chief of the Okinakanes" (p. 134). In an conversation with Pierce, a Moses Band Member criticizes Chief Moses' leadership (p. 150).

Pioneer Citizens of Skagit and Snohomish County

1906 An Illustrated History of Skagit and Snohomish Counties: Their people, their commerce, their resources. Seattle: Interstate Publishing Company.

Pitzer, Paul C.

1966 A History of the Upper Skagit Valley, 1880-1924. Master's Thesis. Department of History. University of Washington, Seattle, WA.

Focusing on Euroamerican settlement and developments, specifically mining and hydroelectric projects, this work offers very little information on native peoples or uses.

1973 A History of the Upper Skagit Valley, 1924-1970. Special Collections, Suzzallo Library, University of Washington, Seattle, WA. This work goes into detail about activities such as the interest in travel within the North Cascades, as well as the building of the Park complex. Much detail on mining activities in the area are here also. No mention is made of native peoples and their activities in the region.

1978 Building the Skagit. A Century of Upper Skagit Valley History, 1870-1970. Portland, Oregon: The Galley Press.

Much information on mining, dam building, discovery of gold, and early settlement of the Upper Skagit River is discussed. Maps of hydroelectric plants, dams and mining operations give the reader perspective of the area. Tourism in the area is also discussed.

Ray, Verne

1932 The Sanpoil and Nespelem: Salishan Peoples of Northeastern Washington. Seattle: University of Washington Publications in Anthropology 5:1-237.

Standard early ethnography of the named groups. Both the Sanpoil and Nespelem live in Northeastern Washington. Little is mentioned of linguistic or cultural affiliation with groups in the study area. Some relations, although not specific, are mentioned with the Okanogan, Chelan, Methow, and Wenatchi.

1936 Native Villages and Groupings of the Columbia Basin. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 27:99-152.

An important categorization of Columbia Basin groups and list of major villages with approximate occupations. Ray defines the Columbia as bounded by the Cascades, the Blue Mountains, and the Selkirk and Okanogan Highlands (p. 102). Dialect subgroups are 1) Lakes, Colville, Lower Spokane, Sanpoil, Nespelem, and Southern Okanogan, 2) Columbia, Chelan, Methow, and Wenatchi, 3) Chewelah, Kalispel, Upper Spokane, and Middle Spokane, and 4) Coeur d'Alene (ibid: 107). Cultural subdivisions are categorized as, 1) the Lakes, 2) Central Interior Salish, 3) Cascade Interior Salish 4) Northeastern Interior Salish, 5) Northwestern Sahaptins, and 6) Northeastern Sahaptins (p. 108). The Central Interior Salish are noted as the "oldest strata of Basin Culture" (p. 109). The Cascade Interior Salish category reflects Coast Salish influence via "trans-mountain intercourse" (p. 110). Ray notes the vagueness of boundaries, especially among the Salish groups (p. 119). The remainder of Ray's article (pp. 121-152) catalogs individual village sites for the above groups, though Ray concedes that not all temporary camps are included.

1939 Cultural Relations in the Plateau of Northwestern North America. Los Angeles: The Southwest Museum.

A result of ten years work among Plateau groups, Ray's ethnography included data on the Lower Thompson, Wenatchi, and other peoples of interest here. Ray notes that the Plateau culture area roughly ends at the "great bend of the Fraser River" (p. 1). Ray (p. 2) indicates on a map that the study area is dominated by Salishan speakers. While Ray uses maps to indicate areas in which each culture trait he is discussing is practiced, very little information is given with regard to specific regions and activities of specific native groups. A useful source for general cultural features of Plateau groups, but limited for this project.

1942 Culture Element Distributions: XXII Plateau. Anthropological Records 8 (2) :99-262.

1957 Ethnohistorical Notes on the Columbia, Chelan, Entiat, and Wenatchee Tribes. Report prepared for Indian Claims Commission, Washington, D.C.

An important Claims Commission document as noted in the main text.

Reid, Alfred

1987 An Ecological Perspective of The Intergroup Relations of an Inland Coast Salish Group: The Nooksack Peoples. M.A. Thesis in Anthropology. Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA.

Reid's thesis represents a network analysis of the Nooksack's contacts and relations with neighboring groups in the present day U.S. and Canada. Clearly demonstrated is the fact that the Nooksack territory extended well into the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, and into a portion of the North Cascades National Park Complex. In his discussion on aboriginal territory of the Nooksack and surrounding groups, the Chilliwack were said to have occupied the area halfway between Sumas and Chilliwack Mountain, along the east side of Sumas Lake to Maple Falls. They continued over Hannegan Pass, eventually ending up at Chilliwack Lake (p. 22). Reid (p. 26) mentions that the Upper Skagit occupied lands as far north as Diablo Canyon. Also used by the Upper Skagit were the upper portions of the Skagit River and the south side of Mt. Baker. Reid (p. 26) cites Teit (1900:167-68) as saying that the annual use area of the Thompson or "Knife" spread well into the North Cascade mountains.

Reid (p. 42) notes that the Nooksack region encompasses the area east to the North Cascade foothills to the upper reaches of the Nooksack River drainage. In this region spring, silver, pink and dog salmon were harvested, as were steelhead, cutthroat and dolly varden trout.

Citing Spier (1936:39), Reid (p. 46) notes that the Nooksack territory abuts that of the Lower Thompson and Upper Skagit to the east. East of Mt. Baker the Upper Skagit, Chilliwack, Thompson, North Okanogan, Methow, and Chelan all utilized the area for hunting. The Cascades are described as "highways" (p. 47) facilitating intergroup contacts between Interior Plateau and Coastal peoples.

According to Reid (p. 59) the Nooksack also had contact with the Upper Sto:lo and Upper Skagit on the Fraser and Skagit Rivers, respectively, while fishing for sockeye salmon which did not run in the Nooksack River. The north fork of the Nooksack River was fished for dog, silver salmon and steelhead during the late fall (p. 73). Reid (p. 73) adds that some sharing of the above resources with the Chilliwack and Sumas peoples likely occurred. Also mentioned is the mountain goat hunting areas on Mt. Baker and Mt. Shuksan accessed via the north fork of the Nooksack River (p. 70). Reid's (p. 78) map indicates a trail or route through part of the National Park Complex used by the Nooksack to obtain resources at Chilliwack Lake.

1987 Ethnohistorically Noted Aboriginal Uses of the Western North Cascades. Manuscript. USDA Forest Service. Mount Baker Ranger District.

As Reid (p. 3) notes, the Mount Baker Ranger District lies adjacent to the western boundary of the North Cascades National Park Complex. It was utilized for resource procurement primarily by the Nooksack, Upper Skagit, Chilliwack, Sauk-Suiattle and Lower Thompson. Reid (p. 4) notes that the Sumas, Nuwhaha, Samish, Lummi, Methow, Stilliquamish, Chelan and Okanagan may have occasionally used this area as well. From this we can infer that the park complex was included in the procurement of subsistence and other resources. Reid (p. 7) also asserts that the Thompson annual use area extended deep into the North Cascade mountains. The Upper Skagit area included the region north of the Skagit River, the south side of Mount Baker, and the southerly bend of the South Fork Nooksack River east to Diablo Canyon, to include the Baker River drainage.

The annual use area of the Chilliwack lies within the northwest corner of the National Park Complex. Reid (p. 9) points out that the area followed the North Fork of the Nooksack over Hannegan Pass to the upper Chilliwack River and down to Chilliwack Lake. Also noted is that most Chilliwack villages were situated on the mouths of creeks flowing north into the Chilliwack River (p.9), and some settlements were noted by Hill-Tout (1978:41) on the upper Chilliwack River near Chilliwack Lake.

Richards, Kent

1981 Isaac I. Stevens: Young Man in a Hurry. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Richardson, Allan

1974 Nooksack Tribal History (Map). Prepared for Nooksack Tribal Council, Deming, WA.

Rogers, A.B.

1887 Rogers papers, 1857-1889. Washington State Historical Society, Tacoma, WA.

Roe, JoAnn

1980 The North Cascadians. Seattle: Madrona Publishers.

Details much of the early exploration and settlement of the area from the Methow Valley to Bellingham since the first exploration by Alexander Ross in 1814. The historical developments of coal, gold, wagons, railroads, forestry and hydroelectric power are examined.

Rousseau, Mike K.

1988 Heritage Resource Inventory and Mitigation of the Ross Lake Provincial Park Campground Expansion Project, Upper Skagit Valley, B.C. Report on file at the Archaeology Branch, Victoria.

Sage, Donald

1953 Gold Rush Days on the Fraser River. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 44 (4):161-165.

Historical examination of gold rush developments along the Fraser River. The author notes an HBC trail over Coquihalla Pass to Kamloops (p.162). Most information centers on mining routes which later became arteries to the interior. No reference to native land use.

Sampson, Martin

1972 Indians of Skagit County. Mount Vernon, WA.: Skagit County Historical Society.

A native perspective of the original inhabitants of Skagit County. Sampson organizes this work by religion, the history of the eleven Skagit County tribes, the Swinomish Reservation, and finally stories and legends of Skagit County's native people.

Schalk, Randall F and Robert Mierendorf

1983 Cultural Resources of the Rocky Reach of the Columbia River. Center for Northwest Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

Survey and evaluation of cultural resources between Rocky Reach Dam and Wells Dam, on the Columbia River. Some discussion of the extent of Wenatchi, Methow, Entiat, and Chelan groups' territory, based on primary source materials (pp. 153-163). Early scholars note the extent of Methow, Entiat and Chelan territories extending to the "basins" of these perspective rivers (p. 155). General ethnographic information provided relative to seasonal living patterns and changes.

Schmierer, Alan C.

1983 Northing Up the Nooksack. Seattle: Pacific Northwest National Parks and Forests Association.

This general account of early exploration, settlement, and the development of the Forest Service and National Park lands contains mostly information originally recorded by Amoss (1972, 1978; Teit (1900) and others relevant to native Americans. Archaeological investigations by Grabert and Pint (1978) indicates that many yet to be recovered sites exist in the North Cascades. Grabert's (1979) work also demonstrates a much more intensively and extensively utilized region than previously acknowledged. Finally, Schmierer (p. 9) notes that a promising archaeological site is near the junction of Hannegan Pass and the North Fork of the Nooksack River. He also says that a permanent village existed at the Canyon Creek-North Fork Nooksack confluence, and that the inhabitants likely traveled the high alpine meadows (p. 9).

Schuster, Helen

1975 Yakima Indian Traditionalism: A Study in Continuity and Change. Ph.D. Dissertation in Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.

Sims, John A.

1858 Papers, 1858-1881. Manuscripts and Archives, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

Smith, Alan H.

1983 Ethnohistory 1811-1855; The Native Peoples. In Cultural Resources of the Rocky Reach of the Columbia River. Project Report No. l. Center for Northwest Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.

1988 Ethnography of the North Cascades. Project Report Number 7. Center for Northwest Archaeology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

Smith, Marian W.

1941 The Coast Salish of Puget Sound. American Anthropologist 43:197-211.

A general discussion of Coast Salish group classification and location in Puget Sound. The author notes the fuzzy boundaries "overland" as compared to waterfront areas (pp. 197-198). The author ambiguously refers to "inland' groups being those in the river valleys and Cascade foothills (p. 198). The author notes similarities in groups occupying similar environments (p. 205). For inland groups, "hunting was almost as important as fishing, and cross-country travel by land was prominent" (p. 205). A breakdown of regional villages for major tribes of the west Cascade area is presented.

1950 Archaeology of the Columbia-Fraser Region. Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology. No. 6.

1950 The Nooksack, the Chilliwack and the Middle Fraser. Pacific Northwest Quarterly, Vol. 41, pp. 330-341.

Smith notes many connections between the Nooksack and groups to the north and west. Smith suggests the Nooksack relate more to Fraser River groups than Puget Sound groups or the Skagit. The author notes the changing course of the Nooksack River, from originally draining north to the Fraser River to south into Bellingham Bay, may have stimulated alliances with coastal groups (p. 337). Smith stresses the apparent ability of the Nooksack to exploit both "riverine and maritime" resources (p. 337).

1956 The Cultural Development of the Northwest Coast. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 12: 272-294.

An examination of prehistorical development of the Pacific Northwest Coast, emphasizing a shift from inland to coastal development. The author suggests a "Foothill Province" corridor on both east and west sides of the Cascades provides a model for diffusion of technology in conjunction with trans-mountain river and valley corridors. No specific references to the study area are mentioned.

Sperlin, O.B.

1913 Exploration of the Upper Columbia. Washington Historical Quarterly Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 3-11.

Sperlin reviews the travels of David Thompson down the Columbia and back up to Kettle Falls. Thompson writes about meeting the Simpoil, Oachenawagan [Okanagon], and Wenatchee Tribes (p. 6, 8-9). These encounters are largely descriptions of ceremonial dances and greetings.

1916 The Indians of the Northwest As Revealed by the Earliest Journals. Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 1-43.

General overview of ethnographic materials relating to Northwest tribes. The information presented is limited and serves best as an introduction to the primary resource materials.

Spier, Leslie

1936 Tribal Distribution in Washington. General Series in Anthropology, No. 3. Menasha, WI. George Banta Publishing. Spier, Leslie, ed.

A primary source reference with supporting information noted by ethnographers and historians such as Teit, Gibbs, Ray, and Mooney. A map of tribal distribution is included (pp. 42-43)

1938 The Sinkiaetk or Southern Okanogan of Washington. General Series in Anthropology, No. 6. Menasha, WI. George Banta Publishing.

This 1938 work is a primary source of Okanagon information as noted in the main text.

Sprague, Roderick

1991 A Bibliography of James A. Teit. Northwest Anthropological Research Notes. Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 103-115.

A comprehensive bibliographic source reference of information written by and about James Teit.

Stanley, George F.G. ed.

1970 Mapping the Frontier. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Divided into two time periods, April 20, 1858-June 11, 1860 and June 12, 1860-July 17, 1862, the work is a diary of Charles W. Wilson. A Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, Wilson was also the secretary to the British Boundary Commission. Very limited information on native American activity. None specific to the study area.

Steedman, Elsie Viault, ed.

1930 Ethnobotany of the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. 45th Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1927-1928. pp. 447-522.

Stevens, I. I.

1855 Report of Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad, near the Forty-Seventh and Forty-Ninth Parallels of North Latitude from St. Paul to Puget Sound. 36th Congress, 1st Session, House Executive Document No. 56, XII, Book l.

Suttles, Wayne

1985 Native Languages of the Northwest Coast (map). Oregon Historical Society Press, Portland.

1987 Coast Salish Essays. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

A collection of previously published articles. Suttles notes that Coast Salish (Halkomelem-speaking) peoples extend up to Yale on the Fraser River (p. 31). In chapter 3, Variation in Habit and Culture on the Northwest Coast (pp. 26-44), Suttles comments on the associations between natural resources and common cultural characteristics. Suttles notes that the Stalo and Upper Stalo groups were not "united in any sort of confederacy... but loosely bound groups of communities within a social and cultural continuum" (p. 30). The Skagit, Nooksack, and Sauk-Suiattle are not mentioned. Suttles examines some Upper Stalo legends of Sasquatch, noting a incident at Ruby Creek and a cave near Yale where the Sasquatch lived (pp. 78-79). Suttles notes "three kinds of, or three terms for, man-like forest beings or wild people" used by Puget Sound Indians in describing Sasquatch phenomena (p. 88). An ambiguous description of "wild" groups along the Fraser is noted by Suttles in work by Hermann Haeberlin and Erna Gunther (p. 88). Suttles cites Nels Bruseth in recording Sauk-Suiattle and Upper Skagit mention of "strange and ghostlike Indians" above "Steetahle" [Stetattle] Creek (p. 89).

1990 The Central Coast Salish. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7, Northwest Coast, Wayne Suttles, ed. pp. 453-475. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.

Swanton, John R.

1952 The Indian Tribes of North America. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 145.

An overview reference for groups in the study area. Swanton notes in reaction to previous theories of changing territorial boundaries that the "relative positions of the Salishans and Shahaptians has been unchanged for an uncertain period of time" (p. 413). Swanton notes the ill effects of white settlement in Washington were "greatest in the Columbia Valley" (p. 413). The Chelan are noted as speaking the "Wenachee dialect" and occupying the Lake Chelan outlet (p. 416). The "Sinkiuse-Columbia" or "Middle Columbia Salish are noted as originally living east of the Columbia from Fort Okanogan to Point Eaton (p. 420). Regarding the Methow, Swanton notes, "A detached band of Chilowhist wintered on the Okanogan River between Sand Point and Malott" (p. 428). The Nespelem are classified as a division of the Sanpoil (p. 429). Swanton notes Nooksack as meaning "mountain men" (p. 430). Swanton notes the Cilliwack "formerly spoke Nooksak" (p. 600).

Swindell, Edward G., Jr.

1942 Report on Source, Nature and Extent of the Fishing, Hunting and Miscellaneous Related Rights of Certain Indian Tribes in Washington and Oregon Together with Affidavits Showing Location of a Number of Usual and Accustomed Fishing Grounds and Stations. United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.

Symons, Thomas W.

1882 The Upper Columbia River and the Great Plains of the Columbia. Senate Executive Document 186. 47th Congress. 1st Session.

A 1881-1882 survey of the Columbia River Basin and Plateau of eastern Washington. Symons notes features along the river corridor, however limited information is presented regarding land use inland. The Kettle River is called "Ne-hoi-al-pit-qua" (p. 23). Symons gathers a crew for navigation down the Columbia from Grand Rapids. In contradiction to other accounts, the author notes the native paddler's apprehension at the rapids downstream (p. 24), but later praise the skill of the paddlers (p. 51). Symons comments on the Chief Moses reservation and disputes with mining there (p. 35). Regarding the Methow River Valley, Symons writes, "I have understood that quite a number of Indians live in the Upper Methow Valley (p. 39). Symons describes his good relations with Chelan Chief In-no-mo-setch-a (p. 39). Indian farms are noted along the Columbia past Chelan (p. 44).

Sylvester, Albert H.

1981 Place Names North of Stevens Pass. Northwest Discovery 2 (1):26 61.

Limited Native American information presented. Some sporadic note of Indian place names and traditional hunting and berry picking areas (pp. 29, 41, 47-48, 55-57, 61)

Taylor, Herbert C.

1963 Aboriginal Population of the Lower Northwest Coast. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 54:158-165

Nooksack and Lummi populations are outlined by three different authorities (p. 3). The author notes problems with estimating Skagit populations (p. 161). Sauk-Suiattle groups are not mentioned or defined as distinct groups.

Teit, James A.

1898 Traditions of the Thompson River Indians of British Columbia. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin and Company.

Contains many Thompson oral traditions. Recounted are areas of subsistence activity, religious use, trade activity and other information. Unfortunately, none could be gleaned that dealt directly with the study area. This work contains a good bit of Thompson mythology, but little in the way of information pertinent to Thompson use of the present study area.

1900 The Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 2, Part 4. New York.

1912 Mythology of the Thompson Indians. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 8, Part 2. New York.

1917 Thompson Tales. Memoirs of the American Folk-Lore Society, Vol 11. Lancaster, PA.

1928 The Middle Columbia Salish. Seattle: University of Washington Publications in Anthropology.

The result of a brief visit in 1908 (p. 89). Specific boundaries for the Columbia Salish and Wenatchi are noted (pp. 93-97). Teit describes another group, possibly a "Wenatchi subdivision" that "commanded the Snoqualmie, Yakima, and all the principal passes through the Cascades, including those to the Cowlitz country" (p. 95). Teit notes Klickitat raids north towards the Mt. Baker area, and resulting "contact with Thompson Indians" (p. 99).

1930 Ethnobotany of the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Forty-fifth Annual Report to the Bureau of American Ethnology. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

1930 The Okanagon: An Extract from The Salishan Tribes of the Western Plateau. Forty-fifth Annual Report to the Bureau of American Ethnology. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

A primary source reference. Regarding mountain excursions, the authors note that in summer, "Similkameen and Okanagon sometimes crossed the Cascade Mountains and visited the people of Hope on Lower Fraser River" (p. 254). The use of snowshoes for mountain use is mentioned (p. 249). According to the authors, "the Similkameen often hunted marmots" (p. 242). Shared upland hunting in the Cascades is implied (p. 257). according to the authors, "they say that Thompson hunting and war parties sometimes went a long way south along the Cascades, but the Similkameen people did not go far" (p. 257).

1937 More Thompson Indian Tales. Journal of American Folk Lore 50:173-190.

Tepper, Leslie H.

1987 The Interior Salish Tribes of British Columbia: A Photographic Collection. Mercury Series, Canadian Museum of Civilizations. Ottawa.

A collection of anthropological photographic data of Interior Salish peoples. A majority of the photographs are by James Teit, between the years 1911 and 1922 (p. iii). Some informative photographs include those of housing and sweathouse structures (pp. 5-21, 188) and "cook holes" (p. 25-28).

Thompson, Erwin N.

1970 History Data Base. North Cascades National Park Service Complex. National Park Service, Seattle, WA.

An early overview of North Cascade native groups and important travel corridors across the mountains, however little information is synthesized beyond the data of the original works of Swanton, Bancroft and Curtis. The Sauk-Suiattle are not differentiated from the Skagit. Erwin notes Skagit summer mountain trips (p. 5) and "shovel" river canoes (p. 10). Native routes across the mountains are noted as shared knowledge by both coastal and interior groups (p. 18). The author notes one particular reference suggesting that Indian routes stayed at "to the high country when possible, rather than through the thick growth of the valley bottoms" (p. 18). The study lacks adequate discussion of the Nooksack. Regarding Interior groups, the author relies almost entirely on Swanton's work. Erwin describes the Wenatchi as having "the most contact of the plateau people with the coast...as middlemen in trading goods and ideas" (p. 26). The author refers to the Upper Skagit area as the "Thompsons' trail down the Skagit (p. 31).

Thompson, Lawrence C.

1976 The Northwest. In Native Languages of the Americas. Thomas A. Sebeok, ed. Vol. l. pp. 359-426. New York: Plenum Press.

1979 Salishan and the Northwest. In The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun, eds. pp. 692-765. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Turner, Nancy J.

1978 Food Plants of the British Columbia Indians. Part 2 Interior Peoples. Victoria: B.C. Provincial Museum Handbook No. 36.

1979 Plants in British Columbia Indian Technology. Victoria: B.C. Provincial Museum Handbook No. 38.

Thorough examination on plant use by native peoples. Since so much data is available on plant use, information relative to this study should perhaps focus on upland plants and specific commodity plants. The author asserts "native peoples of the Province were not, for the most part, montane" (p. 15). Turner continues, "the uplands were seldom ventured into except for hunting, food gathering, or occasional trading expeditions" (p. 15). Ponderosa pine was an important inland tree species and also used for dug-out canoes in the southern Interior (pp. 27, 107-108). The author notes a multitude of plant material uses, but upland and mountain products are not differentiated from this variety. Examples of products traded from interior to coast are "indian hemp fibre, silverberry bark, certain grasses used in basketry" (p. 41). Black tree and wolf lichen were utilized by Interior Salish people (pp. 47, 50-51). The Rocky mountain juniper was used for high quality bows for the Interior Salish (p. 72). Yew and large cut cedar planks were traded inland from the coast (pp. 117-118). Grass uses are noted, especially by Interior peoples (pp. 135-136). The preparation of hemp by the Okanogan is described (p. 169).

Turner, Nancy J., Randy Bouchard and Dorothy I. D. Kennedy

1980 Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of British Columbia and Washington. Victoria: Occasional Papers of the British Columbia Provincial Museum No. 21.

Turner, Nancy J., Laurence C. Thompson, M. Terry Thompson and Annie Z. York

1990 Thompson Ethnobotany. Memoir No. 3, Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, B.C.

Victor, Henry

1883 Journal of Henry Victor Concerning a Trip from Pomeroy to Lake Chelan and Back. Special Collections, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

Wade, M.

1907 The Thompson Country. Kamloops.

Walker, Deward

1994 Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation. In Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. Mary B. Davis, ed. NY: Garland Publishing Co.

Webster, John

1869 Papers, 1869-1938. Special Collections, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

Wells, Oliver N.

1966 Indian Territory 1858. Sardis, B.C.

This is a hand-drawn map indicating areas of occupation for the Nooksack, Chilliwack, Sumas and Pilalt peoples. As Chilliwack Lake is shown, the map is of great import. The study area lies just south and to the east of the lake.

1970 Myths and Legends of the Staw-loh Indians of Southwestern British Columbia. Sardis.

1987 The Chilliwack and Their Neighbors. Vancouver: Talonbooks.

Wicks, Joseph

1930 Papers, 1930-1974. Special Collections, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

Willis, Margaret, ed.

1975 Skagit Settlers. Mount Vernon: Skagit County Historical Society.

Examines Euroamerican development of Skagit County, concentrating mostly on lower area around Mt. Vernon and La Conner. Limited data on the study area. Indian labor in hop farming near Lyman is noted in the early 1900's (pp. 99, 180).

Wilson, Charles

1866 Report on the Indian Tribes Inhabiting the Country in the Vicinity of the 49th Parallel of North Latitude. Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London 4:275-332.

Winans, William P.

1871 Report for 1870 on the Indians to the East of the Cascades. In Report of the Secretary of the Interior for 1870. pp. 486-491. Executive Document. 3rd Session. 41st Congress.

1908 Fort Colville 1259-1869. Washington Historical Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 78-82.

Accounts of troubled relations and punitive military expeditions against Indian groups around Okanagon Valley and Fort Colville.

Winans, W. P.

1908 Fort Colville 1859-1869. Washington Historical Quarterly 3 (1): 78-82.

Accounts of troubled relations and punitive military expeditions against Indian groups throughout the Okanagon Valley and around Fort Colville.

Winton, Harry N.M.

1941 A Pacific Northwest Bibliography, 1940. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 32:203-214.

A listing of Pacific Northwest Quarterly articles which are broken down into various social science and topical categories.

Bibliography of works not cited

Cox, Ross

1831 Adventures on the Columbia. Binford and Mort: Portland, Oregon.

1957 The Columbia River. Stewart, Edgar I., and Jane R. Stewart, eds. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Denys, Nelson

1927 Fort Langley: A Century of Settlement in the Valley of the Lower Fraser River.

Elliot, T. C.

**** David Thompson's Journeys in the Spokane Country. Washington Historical Quarterly.

Fraser, Simon [edited by W. Kaye Lamb]

1960 The Letters and Journals of Simon Fraser 1806-1808. Toronto: MacMillan Press.

Freeman, Otis W.

1954 Early Wagon Roads in the Inland Empire. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 125-130

Gwydir, R. D.

1917 A Record of the San Poil Indians. Washington Historical Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 243-251.

Mayne, Commander R. C.

1862 Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island. London: John Murray.

Mooney, James

1896 The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890. The American Bureau of American Ethnology. 14th Annual Report. 1892-1893.

Ruby, Robert H., and John A. Brown

1970 The Spokane Indians: Children of the Sun. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.