North Cascades National Park: Ethnography of The North Cascades (References Cited)

North Cascades

Ethnography of The North Cascades

REFERENCES CITED

BCGTB (British Columbia Government Travel Bureau): 1957 British Columbia Road Map and Campsite Locations.

Beckey, Fred: 1981 Cascade Alpine Guide: Climbing and High Routes, Rainy Pass to Fraser River. The Mountaineers, Seattle.

A masterful, detailed guide -- much based on personal experience -- to the mountains of the North Cascades country, including the Lake Chelan, Skagit River, and Chilliwack River areas, describing in text, diagrams, maps, and photographs hundreds of trails and climbing routes. Each of the three sections into which the region is divided includes a compressed but highly informative summary of the geography (with climatic and biotic data), geology, and history of the country and a bibliography of selected references. Most of the volume is devoted to precise and exhaustive information on countless individual ranges, mountains, peaks, ridges, pinnacles, buttes, glaciers, and the like to provide hikers and climbers with an incomparable vade mecum.

Boas, Franz: 1890 First General Report on the Indians of British Columbia. In Fifth Report of the Committee ... [to Investigate] the Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Conditions of the North Western Tribes of ... Canada. In Report of the 59th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1889, pp. 801-893.

Except for a few, brief comments on the Interior Salish and Kutenai, the ethnographic section of this report is devoted exclusively to the coastal tribes of British Columbia, especially the more northern ones. The physical anthropological portion also focuses largely on the more northern coastal groups; a short series of measurements is given for seven Upper Thompson skulls. The linguistic section includes a summary for Kutenai as well as summaries for Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian.

Boas, Franz: 1892 Physical Characteristics of the Tribes of the North Pacific Coast. In Third Report on the Indians of British Columbia. In Seventh Report of the Committee. . . to Investigate the Physical Characters. . . of the North-Western Tribes of. . . Canada. Report of the 61st Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff, 1891, pp. 424-449.

A summary of the results of Boas' anthropometric research among the native population from northern coastal British Columbia south to northern California and inland along the eastern face of the Cascades. The principal data include a short series of 16 measurements and a set of five indices. The basic information for each person measured, identified as to tribal affiliation, is presented in tabular form. Other tables compare these mensurational and index data for the different tribal constellations. The significance of the findings in terms of eleven regional biotypes is briefly discussed.

Boas, Franz: 1894 The Indian Tribes of the Lower Fraser River. In On the North-Western Tribes of Canada. Ninth Report of the Committee. . . . Report of the 64th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, Oxford, 1894, pp. 454-463.

A short, generalized ethnographic summary of the Halkomelem tribes of the lower Fraser from the Tait to those at the Fraser mouth, based on field work among the Chehalis in the summer of 1890. The principal villages are located and intertribal relationships are outlined. Described in particular are their life patterns relating to hunting and fishing, marriage and death, and religion. A few notes regarding the Chilliwack specifically are included.

Boas, Franz: 1895 Fifth Report on the Indians of British Columbia. In The North-Western Tribes of Canada. Tenth Report of the Committee. . . . In Report of the 65th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Ipswich, 1895, pp. 524-551.

A second report presenting anthropometric data collected by Boas and his associates among the tribes of southern British Columbia and the Nass River and Kwakiutl of the coastal region. The most detailed information covers, for both sexes, head length and width, facial height and breadth, and nasal height and breadth. The significance of these data and of other measurements and observations of lesser importance in regional terms is discussed. Many tables record his field measurements, allowing further analyses by others who may wish to undertake supplemental studies.

Boas, Franz: 1898 Introduction. In Traditions of the Thompson River Indians of British Columbia, by James A. Teit, pp. 1-18. American Folk-Lore Society, Memoir 6.

An analytic and comparative commentary on certain aspects of the Upper Thompson myths collected by Teit in the 1890s. Certain developmental, evolutionary, and diffusional theories regarding the prehistoric growth of these myths are presented. These data are preceded by a brief summary of the traditional lifeways of the tribe as ../background for a fuller understanding of the cultural content of the myths. The mythic corpus of Teit is followed by an extensive body of explanatory and comparative notes and a set of abstracts of the individual myths, the first prepared by Teit and Boas and the second by Boas alone.

Boas, Franz: 1900 Art; Conclusion. In The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, by James A. Teit, pp. 376-390. American Museum of Natural History, Memoir 2.

A brief survey of the decorative art, music, and dance of the Thompson Indians and an attempt to see the Thompson in relation to the Salishan groups as a whole largely in culture history terms.

Boas, Franz (editor): 1975 Ethnographic Album of the North Pacific Coasts of America and Asia. Jesup North Pacific Expedition. AMS Press, New York. Originally published 1900, American Museum of Natural History, New York.

A small portfolio of face and shoulders photographs of Thompson, Shuswap, and Lillooet men and women to illustrate the range of physical types. Also nine photographs of Thompson-Nicola countryside and of dwelling and sweat house structures. All were taken by Harlan Smith during the Jesup Expedition in the 1890s. They are introduced by two pages of ../background and explanatory notes.

Boas, Franz and Herman Haeberlin: 1927 Sound Shifts in Salishan Dialects. International Journal of American Linguistics 4:117-136.

A pioneering study of phonetic similarities and differences in cognate terms in Salishan coastal and interior languages and dialects, and an analysis of the patterned consonental and vocalic sound changes that have occurred through time.

British Columbia (Province): 1974 Beautiful British Columbia: Road Map, Campground & Angling Guide.; 1983 Tourism British Columbia Road Map.; 1984 Road Map and Parks Guide.

Brown, William C.: 1914 Old Fort Okanogan and the Okanogan Trail. Oregon Historical Quarterly 15:1-38.

An early, informative summary of the history of the fort, its role in the evolution of the Northwest and Hudson's Bay Company fur trade in the Okanogan Valley area, and its important function as a major supply distribution and fur-collection center for the widely dispersed fur trading posts in the northern and eastern Plateau.

Cain, H. Thomas: 1950 Petroglyphs of Central Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle.

A comprehensive survey of the pictographs and petroglyphs of Washington from the Snake River mouth up the Columbia and its principal tributaries to the Grand Coulee area. Each site is located and its representations described. The figures are analyzed in terms of major and minor design elements and the spatial distribution of these elements within the geographical area investigated is discussed and charted.

Chapman, J. D. and D. B. Turner (editors): 1956 British Columbia Atlas of Resources. British Columbia Natural Resources Conference, 1956.

A useful data synthesis and plotting of resource distribution within the province. Since, however, its orientation is toward our contemporary Western culture and its resource requirements, it must be consulted with caution where precontact and early postcontact conditions regarding the bioenvironment are the issue. Its map of salmon spawning streams, for example, shows the Columbia as such only as far upriver as Grand Coulee Dam.

Clark, Lewis J.: 1973 Wild Flowers of British Columbia. Gray's Publishing Limited, Sidney, British Columbia.

Unlike the Clark volume of 1976, this earlier one focuses entirely on the plants of the province and their distribution within the area. Nevertheless, the habitat data for the province are identical or nearly so for every plant of concern in this study. Where trivial differences occur, it is uncertain whether the information of this volume is being corrected in the 1976 publication or merely being slightly contracted or extended.

Clark, Lewis J.: 1976 Wild Flowers of the Pacific Northwest from Alaska to Northern California. Edited by John G. Trelawny. Gray's Publishing Limited, Sidney, British Columbia.

Although far less technical and much less complete than the Hitchcock and Cronquist (1981) encyclopedic treatment, this magnificent, oversized volume of 604 pages covers a much broader geographic area, summarizes the essential data for a large number of genera and species adequately and understandably, and provides splendid color illustrations for many hundreds of varieties. Altogether a superb volume for a technically half-informed but curious amateur.

Codere, H.: 1948 The Swai'xwe Myth of the Middle Fraser River: The Integration of Two Northwest Coast Cultural Ideas. Journal of American Folklore 61:1-18.

Analyzing three versions of the Swai'xwe myth accounting for the origin of the Swai'xwe mask, Codere contends that the Middle Fraser variant differs from and combines the "crest idea" of the Kwakiutl well north of the Fraser and the "power idea" of the Salishan peoples of southern Puget Sound. This is believed to support the thesis of a particular Middle Fraser Culture distinct from the cultural configurations of the surrounding coastal and near-coastal groups. These interpretations of the myths have been properly attacked by Suttles (1957:161-162) as resting on arbitrary misreadings of the published data and so as not favoring the existence in an earlier period of a unique Middle Fraser cultural mode.

Codere, Helen: 1949 The Harrison Lake Physical Type. In Indians of the Urban Northwest, edited by Marian W. Smith, pp. 175-183. Columbia University Press, N.Y.

A reexamination of Boas' 1891 very limited anthropometric and observational data concerning his Harrison Lake Type. It is concluded that this unquestionably unique physical type, characterized by very short stature and other bio-traits, was also the basic type of the Chilliwack and other Middle Fraser groups. Interestingly, the Harrison Lake people do not overtly recognize their small stature: apparently it is with them an insignificant and irrelevant fact of life. This stature disinterest may be the consequence of seeing personal importance in the light of guardian spirit power strength or of inherited position and privileges, but this is yet unknown.

Collins, June McCormick: 1949 John Fornsby: The Personal Document of a Coast Salish Indian. In Indians of the Urban Northwest, edited by Marian W. Smith, pp. 287-341. Columbia University Press, New York.

Fornsby's account of many episodes of his life, interspersed with myths and folktales as he thought relevant, recorded by Collins in the 1940s, edited, and rearranged roughly chronologically. Generalizations are relatively few, since Fornsby found these difficult. Fornsby was born in 1855 in an Upper Skagit village near Lyman. However, his orientation was primarily downriver and with the salt-water people, and his account deals almost exclusively with the coastal area and its people. The few references to the Upper Skagit and their country are incorporated in the Upper Skagit section of this present report.

Collins, June McCormick: 1974a Valley of the Spirits, the Upper Skagit Indians of Western Washington. American Ethnological Society, Monograph 56. University of Washington Press.

The basic general ethnography for the Upper Skagit. Although some subsistence and settlement data are provided, the emphasis is upon social structure, religion, and life cycle patterns. Early history and post-White changes in the traditional life style are also summarized. The material of this volume is extensively used in my summary of the traditional Upper Skagit lifeways.

Collins, June McCormick: 1974b A study of Religious Change among the Skagit Indians, Western Washington. In Coast Salish and Western Washington Indians 4:619-759. Garland Publishing Inc., New York.

An analysis and explanation of the rejection of Roman Catholicism by many Skagit and the gradual acceptance of the Shaker cult in its place. The thesis is that Shakerism corresponded closely in many respects to the traditional guardian spirit religion and incorporated ethical elements that had become important to the Skagit.

Collins, June McCormick: 1974c Aboriginal Habits [Habitat] of Upper Skagit, Suiattle-Sauk, Skykomish and Snoqualmie, Petitioner's Exhibit No. 1, Docket Nos. 92 and 93. In Coastal Salish and Western Washington Indians 5:facing 760. Garland Publishing, Inc., N.Y.

This map plots the aboriginal territory of the Upper Skagit and Suiattle-Sauk, the location of their village sites, and the location of their major subsistence areas.

Collins, June McCormick: 1977 The Upper Skagit Indians and the Skagit River. In Of Man, Time, and a River: the Skagit River, How should it be Used? edited by Roland L. De Lorme, pp. 1-5. Occasional Paper 10, Center for Pacific Northwest Studies, Western Washington State College. Bellingham, Washington.

For the most part this is a very brief, popular summary of some of the information in Collins 1974a, but with special attention to the relation of traditional Upper Skagit life to the Skagit River.

Commission Findings: 1974 The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, et al. . . . Docket No. 181. In Interior Salish and Eastern Washington Indians IV, pp. 437-474. Garland Publishing Inc., New York.

The Findings of Fact section contains ethnographic and historical data, developed in the course of the court testimony, on the Lakes, Colville, Sanpoil, Nespelem, Okanagan, and Methow. The Chelan are not considered.

Cox, Ross: 1957 The Columbia River. Edited by Edgar l. Stewart and Jane R. Stewart. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Originally published as Adventures on the Columbia River 1831, Henry Colburn and
Richard Bentley, London.

An account of Cox's 1812-1817 period in the Plateau fur trade, with observations regarding the various Indian groups which he met and with which he traded. Includes a unique chapter describing in detail the dress, habits, typical personality traits, etc., of the Canadian voyageur, half-breed, and Iroquois Indian, all common trade company employees at his time. A useful document but the narrative sections must be evaluated with care, since, as the Stewarts caution, Cox wrote largely from memory, failed on occasion to distinguish between heresay and personal knowledge, confused date sequences, and tended to romanticize and exaggerate his own role in events.

Curtis, Edward S.: 1911 Salishan Tribes of the Interior. In The North American Indian 7:43-114, 162-166, 179-189. Norwood.

A survey of the traditional culture and Indian-White history of these native groups, based on data collected in 1907 and the following year or two by W. E. Myers, Curtis' field assistant. Useful summaries but poorly balanced: some groups receive extensive attention and others very little; some topics are well considered while others are very superficially treated. Excellent photography, but the subjects are not always as traditional as they might seem. What little Chelan information is presented is merged with other Interior Salishan data in this present report.

Dalquest, Walter W.: 1948 Mammals of Washington. University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History, 2:1-444.

A basic, comprehensive reference volume on the mammals of Washington both east and west of the Cascades. Detailed for each form are its physical characteristics, measurements, and areal distribution within the State. For a great many species extensive notes on behavioral characteristics and photographs of typical specimens are included.

DEMR (Department of Energy, Mines and Resources), Surveys and Mapping Branch, Canada.: 1969 Vancouver NM-9/10, Internation Map of the World. 1:1,000,000. Edition 1 .
1970 Hope quadrangle, 92H, Edition 2. 1:250,000.
1973 British Columbia. 1:2,000,000.
1975 Skagit River quadrangle, 92 H/3, Edition 3. 1:50,000.
1980 Chilliwack quadrangle, 92 H/4, Edition 7. 1:50,000.
1984 National Topographic System Maps of Canada, Index 2.

Diebold, A. Richard, Jr.: 1960 Determining the Centers of Dispersal of Language Groups. International Journal of American Linguistics 26:1-10.

A detailed summary of Dyen's method for inferring from language distributions language centers of development and subsequent migrations, and an attempt to apply this methodology to the Mayan and Salishan language families. Swadesh's 1960 subgroupings of Salishan are accepted as the basis for the Salishan reconstruction.

Douglas, David: 1972 The Oregon Journals of David Douglas, . . . 1825, 1826 & 1827. 2 vols. Edited by David Lavender. Oregon Book Society, Ashland.

In March and April Douglas canoed up the Columbia from The Dalles to Fort Colvile. Thence he traveled overland to the Spokane River and back, collecting plants en route. In June he returned down the Columbia by boat to Walla Walla, from which base he mounted a collecting trip to the Blue Mountains and Wallowas. This was followed by a late July-early August journey up the Snake to Nez Perce country and then overland to the Spokane River and Kettle Falls. From Colville he rode on horseback back to the Spokane River and down the Columbia to Fort Okanagan. There he secured a canoe and traveled down the Columbia to The Dalles and out of the Plateau. A substantial amount of miscellaneous ethnographic and natural history data is incorporated into these narratives, though nothing relating directly to the Chelan.

Duff, Wilson: 1952 The Upper Stalo Indians of the Fraser Valley, British Columbia. Anthropology in British Columbia, Memoir No. 1 . British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, B.C.

A general ethnography of the Halkomelem-speaking groups that aboriginally held the country along the Fraser River from the Sumas Lake area upstream to the lower end of Fraser Canyon just above Yale, B.C. The study is a compilation of Duff's informants' data, collected in 1949 and 1950 and concerned principally with the upriver Tait tribelet and to a lesser degree with the Chilliwack. These informant data are merged with information extracted from earlier fragmentary ethnographies and uncovered in the early historical accounts of the area. There are many gaps in the data, as Duff acknowledges. Moreover, the study is difficult to use, because it is often unclear how much of general Upper Stalo statements and data relating to the Tait group are known to be descriptive of the traditional Chilliwack cultural situation. Still this study is the best and fullest ethnography available both for the Upper Stalo as a whole and for the Chilliwack in particular.

Duff, Wilson: 1964 The Indian History of British Columbia. The Impact of the White Man, vol. I, Anthropology in British Columbia, Memoir No. 5. Provincial Museum of British Columbia, Victoria, B.C.

Following a summary of the major ethnic "divisions," language groupings, and tribes and bands of the province, Duff turns his attention to the demographic and especially cultural impact of Whites on the native groups. Postcontact times are divided into the fur trade (1774-1849), colonial (1849-1871), and postcolonial periods. For the first of these time levels, special notice is directed to trade, changes in the native potlatch and art, and the influence of guns. The colonial period is disposed of in two pages. The third period falls beyond the interest scope of this study. As might be expected, the coast and its native peoples receive particular emphasis.

D[urham], N. W.: 1972 [Lake Chelan in the 1890s: 1891 Steamboat Trip to Stehekin on Lake Chelan's First Steamer.] Edited and annotated by Robert Byrd. The World Publishing Co., Wenatchee, Washington.

A slender volume republishing a newspaper account of a pleasure trip in May, 1891, apparently authored by Durham. To this narrative the editor has appended many explanatory notes and a collection of early photographs of the area. The nature and extent of his editing are unclear.

Dyen, Isadore: 1962 The Lexicostatistically Determined Relationship of a Language Group. International Journal of American Linguistics 28:153-161.

An effort to introduce further mathematical rigor into Swadesh's lexicostatistical methodology and its use in subdividing language families into component units of comparable magnitude. The procedure is applied to the Salishan languages following Swadesh's lead and employing his data base.

Eells, Myron: 1985 The Indians of Puget Sound: the Notebooks of Myron Eells. Edited by George Pierre Castile. University of Washington Press, Seattle.

A useful description of the traditional culture of the Indians of northern Puget Sound and of the culture change then in progress by a missionary who lived among the Twana beginning in 1874. The data were compiled by Eells in notebook form and brought to their final version in 1894. The total range of native life is covered, in varying degrees of depth, from material culture to art and religion. The work has clear biases and misunderstandings as one would expect of one laboring for culture change and religious conversion, and the interpretations are not always sound and without prejudice. But it includes a good deal of informative ethnography and culture change data and many fine material culture plates.

Elmendorf, William W.: 1952 Soul loss illness in Western North America. In Indian Tribes of Aboriginal America, Selected Papers of the XXIXth International Congress of Americanists, edited by Sol Tax, pp. 104-114. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

This study (1) defines the areas of occurrence and absence of the soul loss concept in western North America; (2) analyzes the soul loss data for component traits and groupings of traits; (3) examines the distribution of these traits and their associations with each other and with other features of native culture; and (4) considers these findings as they bear on the theory of unitary origin of the concept, on the theory of Asiatic origin of North American soul loss, and on the possible courses of development of soul loss theories and practices in Western North America. The theory of curable soul loss disease was everywhere present, so far as available data indicate, among the tribes of the Northwest Coast and the northern (but not central and southern) Plateau areas. Though ethnographic data are lacking, it is presumed to have occurred in the Middle Fraser.

Elmendorf, William W.: 1961a Skokomish and Other Coast Salish Tales. Research Studies 29:1-37, 84-117,119-150. Washington State University.

A collection of 38 tales gathered in 1939-1940. Most are of Skokomish origin, although a few are from nearby tribes (Klallam, Snoqualmie). One takes place at the Skagit River mouth and Skagit Indians are involved, but it is described as a Skokomish myth. The tales are introduced by a description of Elmendorf's informants, and by fine sections on style and provenience and a classification of the myths into types, a discussion of the tale characters, and a short but excellent analysis of the ethnographic content of the myths. Two appendices provide a list of characters appearing in the corpus and a useful index to the ethnographic content of the tales.

Elmendorf, William W.: 1961b System Change in Salish Kinship Terminologies, Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 17:365-382.

It is hypothesized that the Proto-Salish language community possessed a single kinship system and terminology which, through time, changed to yield the two distinctly different Salish systems of the postcontact period: one among the coastal Salish from Bella Coola to Tillamook and the other among Interior Salish groups. The question addressed from both ethnological and linguistic perspectives is whether, given certain comparative evidence from recent Salish societies, the nature and direction of these changes can be inferred. To test this question the grandparent/grandchild and uncle-aunt/nephew-niece term sets are examined under three different, mutually exclusive explanatory hypotheses. It is concluded that the Interior groups have retained most closely the prototype, from which the Bella Coola, Coast Salish, and Tillamook have diverged most sharply.

Elmendorf, William W.: 1962a Lexical Innovation and Persistence in Four Salish Dialects, International Journal of American Linguistics 28:85-96.

An analysis of the lexical relations of Musqueam and Cowichan, two Halkomelem dialects of southern Vancouver Island, with Songish and Twana, two Salish languages of northwest Washington, to carry our understanding of Salish internal relationships beyond Swadesh's sweeping study of 1950. The Salish subgroups represented in the four tribes are defined and the different degrees of lexical innovation among these are determined. Swadesh's figures on lexical persistence through time are tested and found to fail to accord with the lexical retention or replacement data for these four Salish tribes.

Elmendorf, William W: 1962b Lexical Relation Models as a Possible Check on Lexicostatistic Inferences. American Anthropologist 64:760-770.

A test of the Swadesh hypotheses that equivalent lexical relationships, measured by lexicostatistic techniques, indicate equivalent rates of change. The empirical and logical bases of this proposition are examined; the possibility that a particular set of synchronic lexical relations does not necessarily imply one and only one diachronic process is tested by reference to a set of theoretical models among three related Salish languages; and the evidence is brought forward that indicate the applicability of one particular model.

Elmendorf, William W.: 1963 Linguistic and Geographic Relations in the Northern Plateau Area. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 21:63-78.

A refined, thoughtful, seminal examination of Swadesh's 1950 lexicostatistical data concerning the Interior Salish speech groups to determine their implications for the culture history of these groups. The linguistic and geographic relations of these groups are investigated; a relative chronology of their gradual separation is proposed; the sequences of their probable territorial movements in specific directions are catalogued; and the likely linkage of these separations and movements with the changing environment is described. A valuable ethnolinguistic study for Plateau prehistory.

Elmendorf, William W., and Wayne Suttles: 1960 Pattern and Change in Halkomelem Salish Dialects. Anthropological Linguistics 2 (7):1-32.

An excellent technical treatment of certain aspects of the Halkomelem language including internal dialect divisions and the phonologic and morphologic differences between three representative dialects: Chilliwack, Musqueam, and Cowichan. Certain lexicostatistic propositions are tested with important conclusions regarding differences in rate of linguistic change among semantic classes.

Ermatinger, Edward: 1912 Edward Ermatinger's York Factory Express Journal, . . . of Journeys made between Fort Vancouver and Hudson Bay in the Years 1827-1828. Royal Society of Canada, Transactions, 3rd Series, 6:67-132.

Ermatinger's day-by-day account of his boat journey of March-April, 1827, from Fort Vancouver to Fort Colvile and the Boat Encampment and then on snowshoes over Athabasca Pass. Also his journal of his return in October, 1827, over the mountain defile and down the Columbia to Vancouver. On both occasions he rode the river through Chelan country. Likewise his boat travel of late March and April, 1828, up the Columbia from Fort Vancouver to the Boat Encampment, once more passing through Chelan territory.

Franklin, Jerry F., and C. T. Dyrness: 1973 Natural Vegetation of Oregon and Washington, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-8.

A splendid study in depth of the various environmental and plant regions of the two states. The 15 physiographic provinces and particularly the major vegetational areas of both the forested and the steppe regions are described in detail with many diagrams, tables, and superbly informative illustrations. A landmark compilation and synthesis of bioenvironmental data, highly useful as a reference source.

Franchere, Gabriel: 1854 Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America in the Years 1811, 1812, 1813, and 1814. Translated and edited by J. V. Huntington. Redfield, N.Y. Originally published as Relation d'un Voyage a Ia Côte du Nord-Ouest... 1820, edited by Michel Bibaud, published by Pasteur, Montreal.

The first French edition took gross liberties with Francheres's Ms. Apparently this 1854 English translation follows the Ms. much more closely. An account of Franchere's four years as an Astorian, including his sea journey to the mouth of the Columbia River. An excellent contemporary record of fur traders' activities in the Plateau and the establishing of the posts at the mouth of the Okanogan and on the Spokane. Useful in checking material presented by Cox, Ross, and other early nineteenth century trade personnel.

Fraser, Simon: 1889 Journal of a Voyage from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast, 1808. In R.A. Masson, Récits de Voyages, Lettres et Rapports inédits Relatifs au Nord-Ouest Canadien, Première Série, vol. 1, no. 3:155-221. In L. R. Masson, Les Bourgeois de Ia Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. A. Coté et Cie, Québec.

The first printing of Fraser's journal of exploration of the Fraser Valley. His record has been rather extensively edited by Masson, mostly through minor wording changes and expansions to make it more clear or more literary. In general, none of the original sense has been lost. In carefully comparing this version with Lamb's edition, however, I noted in the Upper Stalo sections a few substantive differences: e.g., "proceed on foot with our baggage" (Masson's, p. 192) vs. "proceed on foot without our baggage" (Lamb's, p. 98) where the context makes it plain that Masson's is correct; "pine trees" (Masson's, p. 194) vs. "fine trees" (Lamb's, p. 100), in which case the correct version is uncertain. Other differences of this class are noted in the text of this present report. Curiously, Masson blacked out some sentences and sentence parts in Fraser's original field account so heavily that Lamb was unable to read the words: one wonders what information Masson chose to conceal. This version should be read side-by-side with Lamb's by anyone concerned with historical details.

Fraser, Simon: 1960 The Letters and Journals of Simon Fraser, 1806-1808. Edited by W. Kaye Lamb. Macmillan Company of Canada, Toronto.

Edited versions of several of Fraser's journals, that of 1808 reporting his descent from Fort George to the Gulf and return being of special interest to this present study. His travels through the Lower Thompson and Upper Stalo (including Chilliwack) country are described in cursory fashion but with some perceptive Indian details. Unfortunately, few precise geographic facts are provided, making very difficult the precise locating of many of his observations. While no great problem for the Lower Thompson area, it becomes such in the Upper Stalo country. For this reason only the most certain Upper Stalo data are incorporated into this present report. In this publication Fraser's "transcripts have been considerably revised" to make Fraser's "meaning clear." Capitalization and punctuation, for example, have been altered to render the text "more intelligible and more readable." Different spellings of the names of the French-Canadian voyageurs and of the names of Indian tribes have been standardized. All this is really too bad. Editorial clarifications should be offered -- and welcomed -- my judgment only when achieved by techniques that do not destroy the original manuscript in any manner. Otherwise, as in this case, the reader is wholly at the mercy of the editor.

Gibbs, George: 1855a Indian Tribes of the Territory of Washington. In I.I. Stevens 1855, pp. 402-436.

An informative description of the tribes between the Cascades and the Rockies as Gibbs, a member of Steven's party, saw and learned about them in the early 1850s. Particular attention is given to those groups along his route from the Klickitat and Yakima country to that of the Wenatchi, Southern Okanagan, and Colville and on east. Discussed are tribal locations, population estimates, and certain segments of material and social culture. Appended are demographic tables from earlier sources and sections on trading posts, missionary activities, and the treaty situation. The Chelan are mentioned only in passing and as a part of the Pisquouse (Wenatchi) group (p. 412). Basic data on the coastal groups from the lower Columbia to the Canadian line are also provided.

Gibbs, George: 1855b Reconnaissance of the Country Lying upon Shoalwater Bay and Puget Sound. In l. l. Stevens 1855, pp. 465-473.

A summary of what was known in 1854 of the geography of the areas noted in the title, much of it the result of the survey referred to.

Gibbs, George: 1860 Sketch of the Country between the Skagit and Okinakane and Columbia Rivers. National Archives Record Group 76.

Said to include a listing of Chelan villages and camps. Its ethnographic content beyond this point is unknown to me. (See Ray 1974:419 fn.)

Gibbs, George: 1877 Tribes of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon. Contributions to North American Ethnology 1:163-241. Department of the Interior, Washington.

A general ethnographic overview of the Indian groups between the Cascades and the Pacific from the lower Columbia to the Canadian line. Minimal attention is given to the inland groups against the Cascades. Most of the data are in the form of brief summaries of cultural categories with occasional references to specific groups by way of illustration: e.g., subsistence, material culture, property, slavery, warfare, diseases and curing, gambling, feasts, and cycle of life.

Glover, Richard (editor): 1962 David Thompson's Narrative, 1784-1812. The Champlain Society, Toronto.

Written by Thompson many years after his activities as a field fur trader, using his journals and his recollections of things and events as his guide. The volume summarizes in narrative style his rich trading experiences in Canada east of the Rockies, in the upper Missouri country, and in the intermontane plateau region west of the Divide. It provides much explanatory and generally descriptive material not to be found in his printed day-by-day records and covers time periods for which his daily journals remain unpublished. In some instances these narrative data differ somewhat from the facts as reported in his on-the-spot records. In such cases I routinely follow these latter records, unless convincing reasons exist to the contrary.

Green Trails: n.d. Marblemount, Wa-No 47. 15 minute series.

One of a series of maps showing roads and trails in the North Cascades Park complex. These cultural features, derived from U.S. Park Service data and of particular interest in this present study since they suggest possible old Indian trail routes, are superimposed on USGS base maps.

n.d. Mt. Challenger, Wa-No 15. 15 minute series.

n.d. Ross Lake, Wa-No 16. 15 minute series.

Haeberlin, Hermann: 1924 Mythology of Puget Sound. Journal of American Folk-Lore 37:371-438.

Myths collected in English by Haeberlin and prepared posthumously for publication by Gunther from his field notes. The collection includes a group of transformer tales and another relating to five Wolf brothers. A set of tales has Fox as an important personage, taking the place of the Plateau Coyote. Of the 41 tales, 13 are credited to the Skagit; the remainder are reported to have been Snoqualmie, Snohomish, or Skykomish.

Haeberlin, Hermann and Erna Gunther: 1930 The Indians of Puget Sound. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology, 4:1-84.

A general ethnographic survey of the Indian tribes of the Puget Sound area with special attention to the Snohomish, Snoqualmie, and Nisqually. Some data are included on neighboring groups, including the Skagit. This field information was collected in 1916-1917 by Haeberlin and slightly revised and extended by Gunther in preparing Haeberlin's original report for this republication.

Haines, Francis: 1938 The Northward Spread of Horses among the Plains Indians. American Anthropologist 40:429-437.

A detailed study, coupling ethnographic and historical information, of the diffusion of the horse northward from the Sante Fe area in the Southwest. While the emphasis in on the Plains data, a few final paragraphs are devoted to its spread through the Great Basin into the Plateau.

Heizer, Robert F.: 1942 A Decorated Mortar in Columbia Valley Art Style. American Anthropologist 44:534-537.

A brief discussion of the artistic aspects of a prehistoric ornamented basalt mortar found on the lower Columbia River. Design parallels are noted with Northwest Coast art, but these characteristics are distant enough to point to a local, specialized Columbia Valley style, which Heizer believes is in part ancestral to that of the Northwest Coast.

Henry, Joseph Kaye: 1915 Flora of Southern British Columbia and Vancouver Island. W. J. Gage and Co., Toronto.

Useful because of its special geographical focus and particularly in providing early twentieth century taxonomic nomenclature roughly contemporaneous with the botanical binomials used by early ethnographers reporting ethnobotanical data. Many taxonomic plant names, like those of other western botanists of early years, are "obvious misidentifications based on eastern North American floras" (Taylor and MacBryde 1977:xvi). Plant distribution information is very limited.

Herzog, George: 1949 Salish Music. In Indians of the Urban Northwest, edited by Marian W. Smith, pp. 93-109. Columbia University Press, N.Y.

A review of the music of the British Columbia Plateau, the middle and lower Fraser, and the nearby Northwest Coast areas, based on published data available in the late 1940s. The data corpus includes ten melodies from the Chilliwack and eight from the Lower Thompson, all recorded by Frances Densmore in 1926. From information at Herzog's disposal generalizations are made concerning the music of the Fraser country and these are compared with the characteristics of American Indian music over a much wider geographical area, with particular attention to the music of the classic groups of the Coast farther north. Certain technical traits of Salish music are detailed.

Hess, Tom: 1976 Dictionary of Puget Salish. University of Washington Press, Seattle.

An impressively large and well analyzed collection of lexical information on Puget Sound Salish (Skagit and closely related dialects) gathered from native informants between 1962 and 1974 by a fully professional linguist.

Hilbert, Vi: 1985 Haboo: Native American Stories from Puget Sound. University of Washington Press, Seattle.

English translations of 33 traditional myths of the Skagit and other Lushootseed-speaking groups of Puget Sound. Most were collected by Hilbert, a linguistically-trained Skagit and a native speaker of the language; others were developed from tapes or written texts recorded earlier by others. The terse oral myths as told in the past and to Hilbert have been expanded considerably with "additions appropriate to English prose and essential for the Western reader's understanding," ../background material taken for granted by old-time native listeners. Twenty-seven of the myths were told by Upper Skagit or part-Upper Skagit raconteurs; two were told by Sauk-Suiattle persons.

Hill-Tout, Charles: 1900 Notes on the N'tlaka'pamuQ of British Columbia, a Branch of the great Salish Stock of North
America. In Report of the 69th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dover, 1899, pp. 500-584. Edited by Ralph Maud and republished as "Notes on the Ntlakapamuq in The Salish People (1978) 1:41-130, Talonbooks, Vancouver.

A general summary of the Thompson Indians. The ethnographic section briefly discusses their subsistence base: certain areas of material culture (utensils, canoes, weapons, sweathouses, clothing, tattooing, and painting); birth, naming, marriage, and mortuary customs; social organization; and various aspects of religion (guardian spirit quest, shamanism, taboos, and magical practices). Short sections deal with the archaeology of the Thompson country, the physical anthropology of the people, and their language, analyzed after the Latin model popular in Hill-Tout's period. An English-to-Thompson vocabulary is provided. The final 50 pages are devoted to Thompson mythology in English translation.

Hill-Tout, Charles: 1903 Ethnological Studies of the Mainland Halkome'lEm, a Division of the Salish of British Columbia. In Ethnological Survey of Canada -- Report of the Committee, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 72nd Meeting, Belfast, 1902, pp. 355-490.

A summary of Hill-Tout's several periods of cultural and linguistic research among the various tribelets of the lower Fraser. Included in the Chilliwack section are data relating to demography, dwellings, social organization, shamanism, the cycle of life, and mythology. Some 32 pages are devoted to language analysis and a vocabulary listing.

Hill-Tout, Charles: 1904 (See Hill-Tout 1978c.)

Hill-Tout, Charles: 1978a The Tcilqeuk. In The Salish People, vol. III, The Mainland Halkomelem. Edited by Ralph Maud. Talonbooks, Vancouver, B.C. Originally published 1903 in Ethnological Studies of the Mainland Halkome'lEm, a Division of the Salish of British Columbia (q.v.).

The text of the 1903 report remains virtually unchanged -- though lengthy paragraphs have been divided -- except in two notable respects. First, Hill-Tout's phonetics are simplified: e.g., Q and E become "q" and "e" respectively; glottal and stress marks are dropped; macron, cedilla, dieresis, and circumflex are lost. As a consequence, native sound distinctions are blurred through the merging of two separate sounds into a single English letter. In some cases, the results are misleading. On the basis of Hill-Tout's phonological descriptions, ç should be represented by the English "th" (), not a "c" and his c should be converted to "sh" (), not left as a "c." His Q has nothing in common with the English "q" but represents something like "wh" (x^w). Native terms for population groupings, localities, and cultural items are converted to contemporary equivalents or simple English letter sequences: e.g., Sw'le to "Soowahlie"; Tcil'Q'uk to Chilliwack; N'tlaka'pamuQ to "Thompson [the tribe]." A few explanatory notes have been added. Second, essentially all of the linguistic data have been eliminated: most of the descriptive material and all of the illustrative data and vocabulary.

Hill-Tout, Charles: 1978b Report on the Ethnology of the Okanaken [Okanagan] of British Columbia, an Interior Division of the
Salish Stock. In The Salish People, vol. I, The Thompson and the Okanagan, pp. 131-163. Edited by Ralph Maud. Talonbooks, Vancouver, B.C. Originally published 1911 in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 41:130-161.

A superficial summary of research among the Northern Okanagan, probably in 1905-1906. Facts are meager and his anthropological theories are sometimes wildly improbable: e.g., Proto-Salishan was genetically related to Malayo-Polynesian and brought to the West Coast by an obscure transpacific movement. Most of the paper is directed to Northern Okanagan mythology. The editor has "normalized Hill-Tout's phonetic spelling to the nearest English [letter] equivalent" by the simple but absurd expedient of omitting all diacriticals with highly misleading results. (For more on this, see commentary with Hill-Tout 1978a.) What few references to North Cascades Park groups are included are to be found in this present report.

Hill-Tout, Charles: 1978c Ethnological Report on the Stseelis [Chehalis] and Skaulits [Scowlitz] Tribes of the Halkomelem Division of the Salish of British Columbia. In The Salish People, vol. III, The Mainland Halkomelem, pp.95-148. Edited by Ralph Maud. Talonbooks, Vancouver, B.C. Originally published 1904 in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 34:311-376.

A short ethnographic survey, based on Hill-Tout's field research, of the traditional culture of the Chehalis of the Harrison River and of the Scowlitz of the nearby Fraser. As narrated in a Chehalis tradition, the tribe is considered by Hill-Tout to have been formed in the remote past through the joining of a Halkomelem group and an interior mountain people. Brief descriptive sections are devoted to utensils, dress, and dwellings; social structure and hereditary totems; the life cycle; religious beliefs, shamanism, and dances; and concepts of the cardinal points, winds, and divisions of the year. Much of the report consists of a body of myths and traditions. The entire study is marred by a naivete and superficiality, even considering its early date, and in some areas by a viewing of the lifeways of these two groups from an ill-balanced Northwest Coast perspective.

Hitchcock, C. Leo and Arthur Cronquist: 1981 Flora of the Pacific Northwest. 5th printing. University of Washington Press.

The standard manual of northwestern flora. While a one volume condensation of the enormous five volume work of the authors and others, Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest, it is still an extraordinarily detailed and complete compendium of botanical data.

Hodge, Frederick Webb (editor): 1910 Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 30, part 2.; 1912 Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 30, part 1 . Originally published 1907.

A two-volume compendium of native Indian groupings north of the Mexican border -- e.g., confederations, tribes, bands, important villages -- noted historically or ethnographically, of important Indian leaders in both native and Euroamerican contexts, and of foods, artifact types, and other Indian data, with brief descriptive summaries for each item. Literature references are furnished for each entry, providing an especially useful lead to early and no largely forgotten data sources.

Hymes, D.H.: 1960 Lexicostatistics So Far. Current Anthropology 1:3-44

A broad description and balanced appraisal of the theory, methods, and applications of lexicostatistics, the statistical analysis of language phenomena for historical inference. Particular attention is given by Hymes to glottochronology, one important component of the field and one which has received much praise and much criticism: i.e., the study of rate of change in basic vocabulary and the use of carefully derived formulas especially in estimating time depth and other relationships of languages within a family. An excellent encompassing survey of the field for its time by a first class ethnolinguist with a great breadth of knowledge and an innovative turn of mind.

Imperial Oil Limited (Esso): 1958 British Columbia [Highway Map].

Indian Claims Commission: 1974 The Upper Skagit Tribe of Indians v. the United States of America. In Coastal Salish and Western Washington Indians 5:315-343. Garland Publishing, Inc., N.Y.

The findings of fact and decision in this litigation.

Jacobs, Melville: 1931 A Sketch of Northern Sahaptin Grammar. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology 4:85-292.

An early but basic reference grammar for the Sahaptin dialect group closest geographically to the Chelan and Middle Columbia Salish peoples in general.

Jenness, Diamond: n.d. The Faith of a Katzie Indian. Unpublished manuscript, National Museum of Canada, unpaged.

Referred to by Duff 1952:28, 135. Unavailable to me.

Kinkade, M. Dale: 1967 On the Identification of the Methows (Salish). International Journal of American Linguistics 33:193-197.

A thoughtful and well-documented argument for the linguistic reclassification of Methow with the Okanagan, Sanpoil-Nespelem, Colville, and Lakes as a member of the Okanagan language rather than with the Chelan, Entiat, Wenatchi, and Columbia as a dialect of the Columbia language. This represents a departure from the accepted position of linguists and ethnographers. Historical and ethnographic references to the Methow in a language context are reviewed and fresh field data are offered as they relate to the question. Kinkade concludes that for some now unclear reason the Methow probably "simply changed languages," either in the precontact period as he believes the more likely or after White contact.

Krajina, V. J.: 1969 Ecology of Forest Trees in British Columbia. Ecology of Western North America 2(1):1-146. Department of Botany, University of British Columbia.

A detailed, technical study of the biogeoclimatic zones of the province. Of particular interest in the context of this present study because it describes the floristic components, particularly the trees, characteristic of these various zones.

Langen, T. C. S.: 1984 Four Upper Skagit Versions of "Starchild." Nineteenth Conference on Salish and Neighboring Languages, Victoria.

This publication is not available to me.

Lempfrit, Honore-Timothee, O.M.I.: 1985 His Oregon Trail Journal and Letters from the Pacific Northwest, 1848-1853. Edited by Patricia Meyer. Ye Galleon Press, Fairfield, Washington.

A diary of an overland journey from St. Louis to Fort Vancouver and on to the Mission on the shore of Puget Sound north of Olympia, April 10 to October 18, 1848. This journal is without major relevance to the present report. Published with this document are nine mostly short letters written at "Fort Victoria" on Vancouver Island, describing primarily religious and housekeeping matters. The interest in this volume lies in the single reference to Lempfrit's missioning in the Fort Langley area in 1852.

Lewis, William S. and Jacob A. Meyers: 1920 Journal of a Trip from Fort Colvile to Fort Vancouver and Return in 1828. Washington Historical Quarterly 11:104-114.

A fragment of a manuscript journal of John Work. This section covers his journey by boat between Forts Colvile and Vancouver from May 20 to June 11 and, on his return, from July 23 to August 15,1828. For many days, the account consists of no more than very brief diary-like comments. Yet it includes some informative observations on certain of the Indian groups along the Columbia.

Lyman, W. D.: 1899 Lake Chelan, the Leman of the West. Overland Monthly 33 (195):195-201 . Civil War Reconstruction, A.P.S. III, Reel 41, Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.

A popular account of a trip up the lake about 1898.

Masson, L.R.: 1889 Esquisse Historique. In L. R. Masson, Les Bourgeois de Ia Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, Récits de Voyages, Lettres et Rapports inédits Relatifs au Nord-Ouest Canadien, 1:1-154. A Coté et Cie, Quebec.

A brief sketch (in French) by Masson (pp. 97-108) of Fraser's 1808 exploration of the Fraser River, a small part of Masson's general survey of the North West Company and its fur trade. Perhaps sufficient for some readers, it is of little value as a historical statement: events are altered, reordered, and compacted, and entire sequences of days are not even mentioned. Some direct quotes (in English) from Fraser's journal differ from the Lamb edition. Details, including most of Fraser's observations relating to Indians, are omitted. Fraser's entire journey through Upper Stalo country from Spuzzum to the "Stremotch" sector is telescoped into two short paragraphs. A few tributaries and other locations are identified as Fraser passed them, not all, it seems, accurately.

Maud, Ralph: 1982 A Guide to B.C. Indian Myth and Legend: A Short History of Myth-Collecting and a Survey of Published Texts. Talonbooks, Vancouver, BC.

A survey and evaluation of the ethnographic -- especially mythic -- contributions of Hill-Tout, Boas, Teit, Chamberlain, Swanton, and Sapir, of several ethnographers associated later with the National Museum of Canada (notably Barbeau, Beynon, Jenness, and McIlwraith), and briefly of a number of other, more recent British Columbia myth collectors. Appended is a useful checklist of ethnographic field trips within British Columbia and the publications resulting from these field experiences.

Mayne, Commander R. C.: 1862 Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island. John Murray, London.

An account of Mayne's part in demarcating the Canadian-U.S. boundary. It includes many fine, perceptive observations concerning the Fraser River Indians, as well as those on the Coast and in the western Canadian Plateau. A valuable, early eye-witness source of natural history, geographical, and ethnographic information.

Merk, Frederick (editor): 1931 Fur Trade and Empire, George Simpson's Journal. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Account of Simpson's journey of inspection from York Factory to Fort George at the mouth of the Columbia River and return, together with comments on the Hudson's Bay Company posts, the status of the fur trade west of the Rockies, his plans for reorganizing the trade, and on the Indian groups he met, especially those of the lower Columbia. With his party he descended the Columbia River from the Boat Encampment in 1825 and returned upriver the following year, passing through the Chelan segment of the Columbia on November 2,1825, and again on April 3,1826.

Mooney, James: 1896 The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890. Bureau of American Ethnology, 14th Annual Report, 1892-93, pp. 641-1136.

A massive, broad-ranging study of the dance and related matters in the Southeast, Plains, Plateau, and Coast areas. The study is of special interest in connection with the present report for its section titled "Tribes of the Columbia region." This consists of brief summaries for many Plateau tribes, giving for each where the data were available the various names used for the group, language affiliation, geographic location, a sentence or two by way of general culture statement, a precis of the tribal postcontact history, and recent demographic figures. It includes also a map of the reservations in the United States in 1890 and a tribal distribution map, dated 1894, for the "upper Columbia region in Washington, Oregon and Idaho."

Mooney, James: 1928 The aboriginal population of America North of Mexico. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 80(7):1-40.

A pioneering attempt of the early 1900s to assemble population figures from various early sources. It includes a section on "the Columbia Region," in which an effort is made to identify the Lewis and Clark tribal units and to use their informant-derived population approximations, as well as figures reported by later authors. With attention to the depopulation effects of the late precontact and early postcontact epidemics, an attempt is also made to estimate the population of groups as of 1780. Because of the way in which he lumps tribal units, his data are not useful in the present study.

NARN (Northwest Anthropological Research Notes): 1974 Reprint of Report of the Committee for Investigating and Publishing Reports on the Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Conditions of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada, from the Report of the Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1886-1889 [1899], 8 (1/2):1-384.

A convenient source of these early but valuable reports that in the originals are out of reach to many. Included are several by Franz Boas detailing the results of his field studies.

Nelson, Denys: 1927 Fort Langley, 1827-1927: A Century of Settlement in the Valley of the Lower Fraser River. Art, Historical and Scientific Association, Vancouver, B.C.

A historical summary of the establishment of Fort Langley and its role in the happenings in the Fraser Valley from the Fraser Canyon downstream during the century indicated. Its data are commendably detailed, much of it derived from oral interviews and ephemeral local publications not widely circulated.

Overmeyer, Philip Henry: 1941 George McClellan and the Pacific Northwest, Pacific Northwest Quarterly 32:3-60.

A summary and review of McClellan's 1853 exploration of the Cascades area with special reference to its passes, as a part of the I.I. Stevens' railroad survey. The historical ../background of the survey and biographical information on McClellan are provided. Two maps show parts of the routes followed, but neither carries the parties into the North Cascades National Park Region. Overmeyer is critical of McClellan both as an administrator and as a field explorer.

Parker, Samuel: 1842 Journal of an Exploring Tour beyond the Rocky Mountains... in the Years 1835, '36, and '37. 3rd ed. Ithaca, N.Y.

In diary form, Parker relates his crossing of the Plains and southeastern Idaho, and his descent of the Clearwater, Snake, and Columbia to Astoria. Fort Vancouver is well described. Considerable attention is given to the culture and conditions of the Indians of the lower Columbia and of the southern and central Plateau. His final journey back up the Columbia to Fort Colvile and return to Vancouver is recounted in narrative diary style.

Phillips, Paul Chrisler [and J. W. Smurr]: 1961 The Fur Trade. 2 vols. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

An extensive survey of the fur trade in the United States through its full time-period. Chapters 40-43 and 47 (vol. 2) are especially relevant to its history in the Plateau and to Indian-trader relations in the region. In securing his working data, Phillips visited many libraries and consulted much primary archival material in the U.S., Canada, and western Europe. An informative and useful study. However, to judge from his information relating to the early explorers and traders in the Pacific Northwest, the area with which I am most familiar, he generally accepts uncritically the historical conclusions, the geographical locations of events, and other data of previous historical writers and trader-narrative editors. This procedure leads to enough clear errors of fact and shaky assumptions in matters of anthropological interest to argue for careful specialist use of these volumes.

Pierce, Henry H.: 1973 Report of an Expedition from Fort Colville to Puget Sound, Washington Territory, by Way of Lake Chelan and Skagit River, . . . August and September, 1882. Reprinted. Ye Galleon Press, Fairfield, Wash. Originally published 1883, Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.

A day-by-day record of his journey. Excellent in its detailed geographic description of the route followed and in its impressive sketch map showing the trail, major streams encountered, and the location of each night's encampment, permitting a close interlocking of the narrative and map. In the Galleon reprint, the original is photocopied (commendable since errors made in resetting in type are avoided) and repaginated (regrettable since the pagination of the original is omitted). The Chelan section and parts involving adjacent Methow and Skagit areas have been retyped and reprinted by Stone (1983:12-24).

Piper, C. V., and R. Kent Beattie: 1914 Flora of Southeastern Washington and Adjacent Idaho. New Era Printing Co., Lancaster, Pa.

An exhaustive, professional compendium of the varied flora of the southeastern corner of Washington and neighboring Idaho, where Upper Sonoran, Arid Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian zones all occur. The data are taxonomically ordered and provide botanical terms, common English names, and brief botanical descriptions for the individual families, genera, and species. Geographical distribution and ecological provenience are indicated for each species. An outdated study but valuable for determining the plants recorded and botanically identified in early ethnographic and ethnohistorical studies of the region.

Piper, C. V., and R. Kent Beattie: 1915 The Flora of the Northwest Coast. New Era Printing Co., Lancaster, Pa.

Discusses in technical detail the flora of the area between the summit of the Cascades and the Pacific Ocean from the 59th parallel south to the headwaters of the Willamette River. Like the Henry volume, this work serves principally to identify plant binomials used by earlier ethnographers but no longer current and to place plants in their geographical location and elevational range.

Ray, Verne F: 1932 The Sanpoil and Nespelem: Salishan Peoples of Northeastern Washington. University of Washing ton Publications in Anthropology, 5:1-237.

The standard, comprehensive ethnography for the central Plateau, compiled from field data secured in the 1928-1930 period. It includes a few references to the Chelan; these are incorporated into the Chelan section of this present report.

Ray, Verne F.: 1936 Native Villages and Groupings of the Columbia Basin. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 27:99-152.

Brief discussions of the biogeoclimatic characteristics of the Basin and mountains immediately to the east and of the linguistic relationships, cultural subdivisions, and political structures of the native groups. Difficulties in arriving at precise tribal boundaries are noted. The final half of the study presents a catalog of the traditional villages and village locations of many of the groups, including a brief Chelan list, based on his own field investigations.

Ray, Verne F: 1939 Cultural Relations in the Plateau of Northwestern America. Publications of the Frederik Webb Hodge Anniversity Publication Fund, vol. III. pp. 1-154. The Southwest Museum, Los Angeles.

A broad, pioneering, comparative study of similarities and variations among the Plateau tribes in a number of cultural domains. Covered are aspects of political organization, social stratification, warfare and pacifism, girl's puberty rites, disposal of the dead, the guardian spirit quest, concepts of disease, the winter spirit dance, and dwellings and watercraft types. Data are drawn largely from Ray's own field research.

Ray, Verne F: 1942 Culture Element Distributions: XXII Plateau. Anthropological Records 8 (2):99-262.

A survey of the distribution of thousands of culture traits in a representative sample of 15 native groups in the Plateau, including the Kittitas, Wenatchi, and Sanpoil, all three occupying territory not far from that of the Chelan, and the Lower Thompson of the Fraser Canyon. The data are derived from Ray's field research of the 1930s.

Ray, Verne F.: 1974a Ethnohistorical Notes on the Columbia, Chelan, Entiat, and Wenatchee Tribes. In Interior Salish and Eastern Washington Indians, vol. 4, pp. 377-435. Garland Publishing, Inc., New York.

Summarizes White-Indian relations for the four tribes, with attention almost entirely to the period after 1850. Appended to this summary is a brief section recounting the early years and describing the character of Chief Moses and, based on his own field research, a valuable roster of traditional villages and their locations for the four tribes.

Ray, Verne F.: 1974b Petitioner's Exhibit No. 532, Indian Claims Commission -- Docket No. 181, Colville et al. v. U.S. In Commission Findings, Interior Salish and Eastern Washington Indians IV; facing 450. Garland Publishing Inc., New York.

Map of tribal boundaries and village/camp locations of the Lakes, Colville, Sanpoil-Nespelem, Southern Okanogan, and Methow. Unfortunately, the descriptive material prepared by Ray to accompany and explain this map, including a key to the numbered settlements marked, has not been published.

Rich, E. E.: 1967 The Fur Trade and the Northwest to 1857. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto.

An excellent historical summary though little attention is paid to specific data sources and to matters of special anthropological interest. Still, it provides a fine historical framework into which primary narratives and field journals can be fitted. Chapter 14 summarizes the principal events of the fur period in the Plateau and on the Northwest Coast. The relations among the various fur companies active in the region and among the British, American, and Russian interests are explored. Little attention is paid, however, to the Indian groups of the region: to their relationships with the individual companies and specific traders and to the ways in which the traders' presence influenced their life style.

Rivera, Trinita: 1949 Diet of a Food-Gathering People with Chemical Analysis of Salmon and Saskatoons. In Indians of the Urban Northwest, edited by Marian W. Smith, pp. 19-36. Columbia University Press, New York.

An early study of two important foods of the Indians of the Washington and British Columbia coast and lower Fraser River. Attention is paid to the nutritional properties not only of fresh foods (in the case of salmon, of different species and of different parts of the fish) but also of foods prepared in different traditional ways for storage (e.g., smoking vs. drying). Smith provides a valuable introduction and concluding section discussing the broader aboriginal subsistence patterns of the area.

Ross, Alexander: 1956 The Fur Hunters of the Far West. Edited by Kenneth A. Spaulding. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman . Originally published 1855.

Ross' account of his life as a fur trader in the Plateau and northern Great Basin in the period from 1814 to 1825, when he left the Northwest for the last time. The 1855 edition was substantially altered from Ross manuscript to delete what was considered "prolix, earthy, or potentially offensive to someone." This 1956 edition returns to Ross' original Ms., but omits several final chapters, including data of ethnographic importance.

Ross, Alexander: 1966 Adventures of the First Settlers on the Columbia River. Reprinted. Readex Microprint. Originally published 1849 as Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River . . . with an Account of Some Indian Tribes on the Coast of the Pacific, Smith, Elder and Co., London.

A circumstantial account of Ross' journeys, trading posts, and life as a trader with the Pacific Fur Company in 1811-1813, conveying much of the flavor of the very early fur trade and of the Indians the traders en countered. Ascending the Columbia River in August, 1811, Ross and his small party appear to have been the first Whites to have met the Chelan in their own country. The final four chapters describe the lifeways of the Okanagan as Ross observed them during the months he passed in their homeland. A highly informative account in spite of the biases of the time.

Schaeffer, Claude E.: 1940 The Subsistence Quest of the Kutenai: A Study of the Interaction of Culture and Environment. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

The focus and scope of this study are adequately described by its title. It is of peripheral interest to this present report, but still useful for certain comparative data.

Schalk, Randall F.: 1977 The Structure of an Anadromous Fish Resource. In For Theory Building in Archaeology, edited by Lewis R. Binford, pp. 207-249. Academic Press, San Francisco.

A detailed, technical survey of the anadromous fish types of the Northwest, their behavioral -- especially spawning -- characteristics, and their complex relationships with the varying biogeoclimatic environments of the area and the different life patterns of the native peoples of the region. It includes excellent, quantified information on fish productivity among the native groups and the importance of fish storage in the prehistoric development of their lifeways.

Simpson, Sir George: 1847 Narrative of a Journey Round the World, during the Years 1841 and 1842. 2 vols. Henry Colburn, London.

Only a small part of volume 1 (pp. 119-167) is relevant to Plateau concerns. These pages recount his journey of July, 1841, over the Rockies to the Kootenay headwaters and down that river on horseback to the Bonners Ferry area and across to Lake Pend Oreille. From there he traveled by boat downstream to the Calispell Valley, from which, again astride his horse, he crossed the mountains to Fort Colvile. Finally, in August he canoed at headlong speed down the Columbia to Fort Vancouver. Some useful ethnographic observations are included in this narrative, though no mention is made of the Chelan.

Simpson, Sir George: 1931 See Merk l931.; 1947 Part of a Dispatch from George Simpson Esqr . . . to the Governor Committee of the Hudson's Bay Company, London, March 1,1829. In Part of a Dispatch ..., edited by E. E. Rich, pp. 1-119. In The Publications of the Champlain Society, Simpson's 1828 Journey to the Columbia, vol. 10. Toronto.

A comprehensive overview and evaluation of the state of the Company's affairs in the western region visited by Simpson in his journey of inspection in 1828 and a description of the managerial changes undertaken to improve the efficiency and profitability of the trading operation. Brief mention is made of the Athabaska and Mackenzie River Districts, but the principal attention is devoted to the Company's business in British Columbia and Washington.

Smith, Allan H.: 1936-1938 Kalispel Ethnography. Ms. field notes, pp. 1-1,716, in possession of the author.

Smith, Allan H.: 1983 Ethnohistory 1811-1855; the Native Peoples. In Cultural Resources of the Rocky Reach of the Columbia River, Project Report no. 1, vol. 1 . Edited by Randall F. Schalk and Robert R. Mierendorf, pp.25-354. Center for Northwest Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.

Two lengthy ethnohistorical and ethnographic chapters relating to the Columbia, Wenatchi, Entiat, and Chelan with particular reference to (a) early historic contact and the ethnographic insights these documents provide, and (b) population estimates, linguistic affiliations, socio-political entities, subsistence resources, food acquisition strategies, and dwellings and secondary structures of these four groups. A limited, tentative culture- historical reconstruction is attempted.

Smith, Allan H.: 1984 Kutenai Indian Subsistence and Settlement Patterns. Project Report No. 2, Vol. 2 (BF 286 18 08F U 0000), Center for Northwest Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, pp. 1-291.

Of interest in this North Cascades study primarily for its broad survey of Upper Kutenai subsistence, compiled from the ethnographic and historical literature. Because of litigation affecting the Kutenai in progress while this information were being assembled, field research among the group to complement these data proved impossible.

Smith, Allan H.: 1985a Medicinal Plants of the Thompson Indians and Aboriginal Land Use Patterns. Ms. in possession of author.

A detailed study of traditional Thompson medicinal plants as documented by Teit (1900) and their occurrence in relation to the plant community zones of the plant ecologists. The focus is upon what such ethnobotanical data can tell about land use patterns of native groups, in this case of high altitude regions of the tribal territory.

Smith, Allan H.: 1985b The Traditional Culture of the Nez Perce, 1700-1835. Ms. in progress in possession of the author.

Smith, Allan H.: 1986 Kalispel Ethnography and Ethnohistory. In Calispell Valley Archaeological Interim Report for 1984 and 1985 Field Seasons, edited by Alston V. Thoms and Greg C. Burtchard, pp. 139-286. Center for Northwest Anthropology, Contributions in Cultural Resource Management No. 10, Washington State >University, Pullman.

A summary of five segments of Kalispel culture and ethnohistory of immediate relevance to the archaeological finds of the Usk project: traditional methods of gathering, preparing, and storing root foods with particular emphasis on the ground oven; dwellings and attendant structures and their spatial arrangements in the village and camp; the effect of epidemics on the Kalispel life mode; the role of the horse after its introduction about 1760-1770; and the influence of the early fur traders and their Euroamerican goods on traditional Kalispel cultural patterns.

Smith, Harlan Ingersoll: 1907 Archaeology of the Gulf of Georgia and Puget Sound, American Museum of Natural History, Memoir 2, Part 6. E.J. Brill, Leiden.

A summary of the archaeology of the Gulf of Georgia and Puget Sound areas, as known in the early 1900s, with some attention to sites and artifacts of the lower Columbia Valley. Surveyed area by area are the cairns, shell mounds, and petroglyphs and the artifacts discovered in these sites. Treated in separate sections are the stone clubs, stone axes, seated human figures holding a dish, and stone sculptures. A short section, contributed by Franz Boas, deals with the whale-bone clubs of the area between Vancouver Island and the Columbia River and up the Fraser to Kamloops. Included are a few site photographs and many detailed artifact drawings.

Smith, Marian W.: 1940 The Puyallup-Nisqually. Columbia University Press, N.Y.

A full-scale general ethnography, presenting field data collected in 1935-1936 and covering in detail material, social, and cognitive segments of culture. The basic source of information regarding the traditional lifeways of these two groups.

Smith, Marian W.: 1941 The Coast Salish of Puget Sound. American Anthropologist 43:197-211.

A brief overview of this cluster of Salishan coastal tribes. Discussed are the nature of group boundaries, village distribution patterns and characteristics, distinctions between "salt water" peoples and "inland" groups, and cultural differences in village structure and social patterns between Puget Sound groups and tribal entities on coastal British Columbia and the Fraser River. The cultural affiliations of the Nooksack, Lummi, and Songish, located geographically between the British Columbia and Puget Sound areas, are examined in relation to the groups to the north and those to the south. Four clusters of Puget Sound tribes are posited -- Puyallup-Nisqually and the Central, Northern, and Inland Puget Sound groups -- and their individual, distinctive cultural traits are briefly outlined. Lists of the native villages and extended villages are given by name and location for the Sahehwamish, Squakson, Puyallup, Nisqually, Duwamish, Suquamish, Snohomish, Swinhomish, Muckleshoot, Snoqualmie, Skagit, and Samish, in itself a highly useful contribution to the ethnography of the area.

Smith, Marian W.: 1943 Columbia Valley Art Style. American Anthropologist 45:158-160.

A brief comparison of the decorative art style of a stone mortar, discovered archaeologically on the Columbia River at the mouth of the Deschutes River, with classic Northwest Coast art and with basketry designs of the Salishan groups of the southern Washington coast. Significant parallels are noted.

Smith, Marian W.: 1946 Petroglyph Complexes in the History of the Columbia-Fraser Region. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 2:306-322.

A survey of the artistic styles of the few petroglyphs and pictographs known in the 1940s in the middle Fraser, Puget Sound, and The Dalles areas. Considered also are the ornamented ethnographic objects from the region showing design parallels. Three complexes are distinguished, based respectively on (a) a non religious dot-and-circle motif, (b) semi-realistic representations of animal figures, one subtype with religious meaning and the other without, and (c) anthropomorphic designs, mainly in single outline form, with very strong religious associations. Possible links of these styles with the Northwest Coast and the Oregon-Nevada-Utah area are discussed.

Smith, Marian W.: 1947 House Types of the Middle Fraser River. American Antiquity 12:255-267.

Ethnographically, plank houses and semisubterranean dwellings have generally been considered to be separated in their distribution by the Cascades and Coast Ranges, the former being characteristic of the Northwest Coast groups west of the mountains and the latter occurring among the Plateau tribes to the east. On the Fraser River, however, Smith contends that this is not the case. Pit houses were found aboriginally as far downstream as Harrison Lake and the upper Chilliwack and upper Nooksack Rivers, all areas west of the mountain heights and with primary coastal cultural affiliations. Smith's archaeological investigations in 1945 near Agassiz in "Harrison" [her term for the easternmost Upper Stalo groups] country [Pilalt territory according to Duff 1952:21, 35] west of the Coast Mountains uncovered evidences of semisubterranean structures of the very early historic period. These excavation findings are briefly reported. The structural characteristics of the Middle Fraser pit habitations are compared with those of the nearby Plateau semisubterranean dwellings. She concludes that the Harrison Lake to Nooksack River distribution was separated from the Plateau occurrence by a Fraser River area in which no such depression dwellings were used aboriginally.

Smith, Marian W.: 1950b Archaeology of the Columbia-Fraser Region. Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology No. 6.

A study, based largely on her own 1938 field research concerned with the relationships between the language and culture of the Nooksack and the Chilliwack and with their affinities with closeby coastal peoples and the Fraser River tribes from Yale downstream to below the Harrison River mouth: i.e., her Middle Fraser. Emphasis is on linguistic change in late aboriginal and very early historic times, resulting in language flow and little actual population movement. It is contended that Nooksack was spoken in the Middle Fraser before the appearance of Halkomelem. The protohistoric culture of the area differed in important respects from the life patterns of both the peoples near the Fraser mouth and those groups upriver from Yale. Early historic Nooksack culture represented the last stand of the special Middle Fraser life style, a form that blended both riverine and coastal traits. Both pit dwellings and flaked and ground stone tools were characteristic of the Middle Fraser region. A list of Nooksack and of Chilliwack villages is appended to the descriptive summary.

Smith, Marian W.: 1950b Archaeology of the Columbia-Fraser Region. Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology No. 6.

Artifact collections from the Suquamish area and a site near Agassiz (ethnographic Upper Stalo Pilalt country immediately north of Chilliwack territory) are described. Agassiz artifact styles are compared with those reported from the other Columbia-Fraser sites. Archaeological recoveries from the broad Columbia-Fraser region are summarized with attention to their ethnographic associations and possible diffusion routes. Postulated cultural entities termed Late Bone, Early Bone, Eastern Stone, and Coastal Stone are described in terms of their geographic distribution, age, and artifact complements. The prehistory of her Middle Fraser area in relation to the Columbia-Fraser and larger Northwest Coast and Plateau regions is reconstructed as seen by Smith in 1950.

Smith, Marian W.: 1952 Culture Area and Culture Depth: with Data from the Northwest Coast. In Indian Tribes of Aboriginal America, Selected Papers of the XXIXth International Congress of Americanists, edited by Sol Tax, pp.80-96. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

An effort to dissect the Plateau and Northwest Coast ethnographic data through an analysis of trait distribution, and to hypothesize regional culture areas and subareas on a time scale. Discussed is her postulated old, unique interior or inland culture type of the Cascades foothills extending from the Carrier to the Klamath. Also her hypothesized later, derivative, more geographically restricted Middle Fraser culture. Earlier ethnographic attempts to differentiate the basic culture types of the Northwest are reviewed. The cultural position of the Bella Coola is discussed with the conclusion that their basic affiliation was with the Middle Fraser rather than the classic Northwest Coast. The principles underlying the ethnographic reconstructive process in diffusional terms are outlined. Marginal, survival, peripheral, and intermediate area types as well as cultural climaxes and culture areas are defined and the processes resulting in these developments are summarized.

Smith, Marian W.: 1955 Continuity in Culture Contact, Examples from Southern British Columbia. Man 115:100-105.

Identified are several culture traits that occurred in traditional times among the Salishan tribes of southern coastal British Columbia and northwestern Washington but not farther north on the Coast. Recent postcontact inventions and new applications of old technological processes are discussed, including new fishing gear, home spinning devices, and the making of long, sleek racing dugout canoes. Details of old cedar canoe varieties and their geographical distribution are reported, leading to the conclusion that the Middle Fraser peoples possessed a larger number of these varieties than did the more northern "tribes of the classical Northwest Coast," though fewer types than among the Puget Sound groups. Attention is given to the degree to which certain elements of Middle Fraser Indian life in the 1950s represented deteriorated retentions of the traditional as contrasted with retentions with variations and even improvements.

Smith, Marian W.: 1956 The Cultural Development of the Northwest Coast. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12:272-294.

An extended exposition of her thesis that a "Foothills Culture" once existed from The Dalles region of the Columbia northward along both flanks of the Cascades to the Fraser River in the Lytton, B.C., area, and that a later "Middle Fraser Culture" elaboration on the foothills base appeared on the upper Nooksack River and Fraser River from Yale downstream to Mission. Ethnographic and archaeological data, unfortunately very limited in extent, are assembled to support these hypotheses. Upon this reconstruction, enlarged to include the entire northern Pacific rim and extended back in time to an ancient cultural substratum, is fabricated a more complex series of hypothetical cultural configurations to explain the development of classic Northwest Coast culture. The Upper Skagit, Chilliwack, Lower Thompson, and Chelan are all considered to have been among the groups with the "Foothills Culture"; the Chilliwack to have been one of the much smaller number of tribes with the later "Middle Fraser Culture."

Smith, Marian W. and Dorothy Leadbeater: 1949 Salish Coiled Baskets. In Indians of the Urban Northwest, edited by Marian W. Smith, pp. 111-132. Columbia University Press, New York.

This report consists of three sections. The first, by Smith, is general in nature, discussing the importance of basketry studies, similarities between Salish and California basketry, attitudes of Fraser drainage Salish weavers toward their design elements, and recent changes in native basket weaving. The second, authored by Leadbeater, describes the procedures she developed for recording in detail the technical characteristics of imbricated coiled basketry and their ornamental designs. The third part, by Smith, analyzes further various aspects of typical design continuity around the total basket and the question of whether apparent design errors are truly thus.

Spier, Leslie: 1936 Tribal Distribution in Washington. General Series in Anthropology, No. 3. George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wisconsin.

A basic compilation of ethnohistorical and ethnographic data on the various aboriginal tribes of the State by an early, respected ethnographer. A tribal distribution map is included.

Spier, Leslie (editor): 1938 The Sinkaietk or Southern Okanagon of Washington. General Series in Anthropology, No. 6.
George Banta Publishing Co., Menasha, Wisconsin.

A comprehensive, detailed ethnographic study carried out in 1930 by a graduate-student field party under the immediate supervision of Spier. The field data were sorted by Spier into general subject categories and the writing of the chapter drafts was assigned to the various field participants. These manuscripts were carefully edited and widely rewritten (with great profit) by Spier, resulting in a final publication uniform in style and with full content coverage. Consequently my credits -- e.g., "Walters writes" and "According to Walters' informants" -- indicate the author of the original chapter manuscript, who was responsible neither for all of the field notes incorporated into the section nor for the final chapter product. The present tense -- the "ethnographic present" -- is used in describing the Sinkaietk traditional culture, even though the customs and beliefs had long since disappeared in the 1930s, a style that may be misleading to nonanthropological readers. A few references are made to the Chelan, Skagit, and Thompson; these are noted in this present North Cascades study.

Spinden, Herbert Joseph: 1908 The Nez Perce Indians. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 2, part 3, pp. 165-274.

A pioneering attempt at a general ethnography of the tribe, based on short periods of field research in 1907 and 1908. Brief attention is given to the history and natural environment of the tribe and to the archaeology of their country as known at the time. The ethnographic section covers the traditional material culture in some detail and the social, political, and religious domains more superficially. Nez Perce culture is largely seen as a peripheral Plains life-mode with historically late, post-horse Plains borrowings. A particular shortcoming of the study is Spinden's mixing of data from various sources without explanation: artifacts apparently discovered archaeologically are mingled with ethnographic specimens; museum items are described with his own informants' data; and data from the Lewis and Clark journals are integrated with his field information often without credit to the explorers. A useful volume, but one that must be used with special care.

Steedman, Elsie Viault (editor): 1930 Ethnobotany of the Thompson Indians of British Columbia. Bureau of American Ethnology, 45th Annual Report, 1927-1928, pp. 447-522.

A fine ethnobotanical study of the native plants used in traditional times by the Thompson: a supplement to and refining of the data presented in Teit's (1900) Thompson ethnography. The descriptive data are drawn from Teit's field notes; the botanical identifications are presumably based on an ethnographically notated plant collection made by Teit around the turn of the century. Steedman's introduction summarizes the Thompson scheme of plant nomenclature and other general data relating to their plant gathering and use. The report itself lists the specific plants by use category, each identified by its Thompson name and botanical binomial, and presents Teit's cultural use information. The categories recognized by Steedman are medicines (many), food (many), masticatories, drinks, smoking plants, plants used technologically, dyes and paints, scents, plants used in purification, and others used in special ways and belief contexts.

Stevens, l. l.: 1855 Report of Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad, near the Forty-seventh and Forty-ninth Parallels of North Latitude from St. Paul to Puget Sound. 36th Cong., 1st Sess., House Exec. Doc. no. 56, XII, Book l.

A splendid collection of field reports of various surveying teams. A landmark in its time.

Standard Oil of California: 1962 Road Map of Washington [State] .

Stern, Bernhard J.: 1934 The Lummi Indians of Northwest Washington. Columbia University Press, New York.

A relatively brief report of Stern's field findings of 1928-1929. The subsistence quest receives scant attention and, in material culture, only weaving and woodworking and the objects made by these processes are discussed. The report focus is on the cycle of life, social matters (e.g., "festivities," the secret society, conflict), religion, and "legend and lore."

Stone, Carol M. (compiler): 1983 Stehekin: Glimpses of the Past. Long House Printcrafters and Publishers, Friday Harbor, Washington.

A very informative collection of articles, some published in various, often obscure early sources and others existing only in manuscript status, relating to the early White history of Lake Chelan and the Stehekin country. These selections are reproduced as written by their authors with brief prefatory remarks but without editorial modification of the articles themselves, for which Stone deserves commendation.

Suttles, Wayne: 1951 The Early Diffusion of the Potato among the Coast Salish. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 7:272-288.

An excellent, carefully researched survey of the early years of the white potato among the native groups of Georgia Strait, the lower Fraser, and Puget Sound. Discussed are its introduction through White contact as reconstructed from historical, ethnographic, and linguistic evidence, the role soon played by the potato as a subsistence resource in tribal life, and the cultural ../background of the groups that facilitated its ready reception and fostered its rapid diffusion.

Suttles, Wayne: 1957 The "Middle Fraser" and "Foothills" Cultures: A Criticism. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 13:156-183.

A scholarly, detailed, and valuable critique, largely negative, of Marian Smith's proposed distinctive "Foothills Culture" and later derivative and geographically more restricted "Middle Fraser" culture. Very serious questions are raised concerning her basic assumptions and hypotheses, methodology, control of the basic ethnographic and archaeological data, and conclusions. (For these two culture formulations, see Smith's bibliographic references.)

Suttles, Wayne: 1965 Linguistic Means for Anthropological Ends on the Northwest Coast. The Canadian Journal of Linguistics 10:156-167.

A perceptive analysis of a large corpus of Musqueam texts collected by Suttles in terms of the kinship terms employed and their usages to illustrate how such linguistic material can contribute to understanding certain inner aspects of the culture of a group not readily uncovered by usual ethnographic field techniques.

Suttles, Wayne: 1985 Native Languages of the Northwest Coast. Oregon Historical Society Press. Map scale 1:3,000,000; map size ca. 31.5 x 44 inches.

A new synthesis and handsome, clear plotting of language distribution data by one of our most knowledge able Plateau and Northwest Coast ethnographers and linguists. The entire Pacific coast east to the Rockies is covered from Kodiak Island south to northern California, together with the northwestern corner of the Great Basin. Language boundaries are mapped and major dialect units within them are identified and their general location shown. All boundaries and locations are as of first White contact.

Suttles, Wayne and William W. Elmendorf: 1963 Linguistic Evidence for Salish Prehistory. American Ethnological Society, Proceedings of the 1962 Annual Spring Meeting. Symposium on Language and Culture.

Swadesh's Salish glottochronological data are reanalyzed to detect chain relationships between languages, yielding the conclusion that the "original divergence of protobranch languages [occurred] in river valleys along the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains, perhaps from the southern end of Puget Sound north to the Fraser River, with the earliest offshoot just east of the Cascades" (p. 45). A few grammatical features appearing in various Salishan languages are examined to suggest relationship links. Possible or probable relationships between Salish and other nearby stocks are proposed and their implications for early Salishan prehistory are suggested. The influence of ecological conditions on the spread of Salish into the Plateau is considered in an innovative and persuasive way.

Swadesh, Morris: 1950 Salish Internal Relationships. International Journal of American Linguistics 16:157-167.

A very early effort to apply the lexicostatistical approach to the Salishan language family with the aim of separating it into its component language units, of establishing the degree of kinship between these units and between dialect groups within individual languages on the basis of shared vocabulary items, and of estimating linguistic distance of languages and dialect groups from a reconstructed early Salish vocabulary.

Swadesh, Morris: 1952 Salish Phonologic Geography. Language 28:232-248.

A study of phonologic similarities and differences among Salishan languages, with particular reference to the genetic and geographic relations of the languages, and to some extent between Salishan and other closeby language stocks. Discussed are phonetic and phonemic elements common among Salishan languages and those distinctive of separate language clusters; the phonemic system of Proto-Salish and the shifts that have occurred through time in the member languages; the approximate timing of these changes; the problem of differentiating linguistic similarities owing to genetic kinship from those resulting from borrowing; and the effects on sound systems of phonetic devices to express concepts (e.g., smallness) and of sound imitative words.

Swanton, John R.: 1952 The Indian Tribes of North America. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 145.

An impressive compendium of data on the location, demographics, major subdivisions and villages, and in some cases history of a huge number of American Indian tribes, organized by geographical region: Canada, the United States (by state), the West Indies, Mexico, and Middle America.

Symons, Thomas W.: 1882 The Upper Columbia River and the Great Plains of the Columbia. Senate Exec. Doc. 186, 47th Cong., 1st Sess.

In the early fall of 1881, Symons carried out a detailed survey of the Columbia River from Kettle Falls to the mouth of the Snake River, mapping the river from his bateau in all its twists, ripples, and bars with special attention to possible navigational hazards at different water levels. He provides excellent information concerning the terraces, cliffs, and other land forms flanking the river and regarding the various Indian groups and early White settlers encountered.

Taylor, Herbert C., Jr.: 1963 Aboriginal Populations of the Lower Northwest Coast. Pacific Northwest Quarterly 54:158-165.

A study that traces briefly earlier population estimates of coastal tribes from the Kwakiutl south to the lower Columbia, that examines these estimates in light of unpublished Hudson's Bay Company censuses, historical documents, and archaeological surveys, and that suggests more reliable population approximations.

Taylor, Roy L., and Bruce MacBryde: 1977 Vascular Plants of British Columbia, a Descriptive Resource Inventory. University of British Columbia Press.

This detailed, precise, complete, and carefully researched plant compendium presents the most specific and useful data on subjects of botanical interest in this present study. A particular advantage of this huge resource volume is its record of plant distribution data according to Krajina's twelve biogeoclimatic zones. Another merit is that it includes a multicolored adaptation of Krajina's zonal map, taken from A. L. Farley's Atlas of British Columbia, which permits the various zones to be distinguished from one another with far greater confidence than in the case of Krajina's monochromatic map. Where data differences exist between earlier British Columbia vegetative surveys, the information of this compendium is accepted as the arbiter.

Teit, James: 1898 Traditions of the Thompson River Indians of British Columbia. American Folk-Lore Society, Memoir 4:1-137.

An extensive body of Upper Thompson myths collected by Teit, including transformer tales (some with Coyote as the central figure); others recounting the origin of animals, astronomical bodies, and meteorological and natural phenomena; and many telling of episodes in the life of animal-human beings of the mythic period. Two Lillooet tales are appended to the Thompson collection. Boas provides an introduction, adds comparative notes to Teit's explanatory notes, and furnishes abstracts for all the myths. Unfortunately, owing to time constraints, it was not possible to extract from this corpus and introduce into the present study the considerable amount of ethnographic data imbedded in this mythic compilation.

Teit, James: 1900 The Thompson Indians of British Columbia. American Museum of Natural History, Memoir 2 (Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol 1, part 4), edited by Franz Boas, pp. 163-392. New York.

The basic ethnographic study of the Thompson. The data were secured by Teit, a non-anthropologist but intelligent, Boas-trained resident in the Thompson country, in the 1890s. Teit was married to a Thompson woman, spoke the Thompson language fluently and apparently other Salishan languages as well, observed the last vestiges of traditional Thompson material and social culture in practice, and secured enriching ethnographic details, particularly regarding earlier time levels, from Thompson informants. The study suffers somewhat from the kinds of ethnographic subject lacunae and narrow theoretical vision typical of its period, from certain weaknesses in phonetic transcription, and doubtless in unclear ways from the fact that Boas assembled and edited Teit's field information. Nevertheless, this is a splendidly detailed, absolutely essential contribution to our ethnographic knowledge of Canadian Interior Salishan groups.

Teit, James: 1912 Mythology of the Thompson Indians. American Museum of Natural History, Memoir 12 (Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. 8, part 2), pp. 197-416. New York.

Teit's second collection of Thompson myths and traditions. Fifty-two were collected from the Lower Thompson: these include (as classified by Boas) coyote, transformer, and origin myths; animal, hero, and ancestor tales; and a few tales of a semi-historical nature, borrowed from coast tribes, or based on European folklore. The second collection in this publication comprises 115 items obtained by Teit from the Upper Thompson of the Nicola Valley and that part of the Fraser Valley occupied by these Upper People. The tales in this second series are classified into essentially the same types as the first set. These oral narratives contain many ethnographic details and insights which could not be incorporated into this present study because of time limitations.

Teit, James A.: 1917 Thompson Tales. In Folk-Tales of Salishan and Sahaptin Tribes. American Folk-Lore Society, Memoir 11:1-64.

Sixty-six tales of the Thompson Indians, of which 28 recount Coyote escapades. The majority were collected by Teit, between 1906 and 1916; a few were secured by Boas in 1888. Most are from the Upper Thompson Division. The final item represents recollections of the Fraser party's journey through the Thompson country in 1808. A valuable compilation of native oral literature. Owing to time pressures, the ethnographic data to be found in these tales could not be extracted and meshed with the materials of the Thompson chapter of this present report.

Teit, James A. [erroneously given as H.]: 1928 The Middle Columbia Salish. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology, 2:83-128.

A general but brief ethnographic summary of the Columbia, Wenatchi, Chelan, and Methow, based on incidental notes taken by Teit in 1908 on the Colville Reservation and assembled and edited by Franz Boas. Special emphasis is placed on protohistoric and early historic tribal movements in the region, giving rise to what became a highly controversial contention that Salishan peoples once occupied the Columbia River country downstream to The Dalles. The Chelan are considered a subgroup of the large Wenatchi tribe and are specifically referred to only incidentally. These notes are included in this present study.

Teit, James A.: 1930a The Salishan Tribes of the Western Plateaus. Edited by Franz Boas. Bureau of American Ethnology, 45th Annual Report, 1927-1928, pp. 23-396.

Ethnographic summaries, based on field inquiry in 1904-1909, of the aboriginal and early historic culture of the Coeur d'Alene, the "Flathead Group" (Spokan, Kalispel, Pend Oreille, Flathead), and the "Okanagon Group" (Lakes, Colville, Sanpoil-Nespelem, Okanagan). A very important data source, though attention is not given equally to these cultural-linguistic units.

Teit, James A.: 1930b The Okanagon. In Teit, 1930a:198-294.

A basic culture-wide ethnography of the traditional Okanagan, Sanpoil-Nespelem, Colville, and Lakes lifeways, assembled by Boas from Teit's extensive, very detailed field notes of the first decade of the 1900s. Especially important since it presents much information collected by Teit, under Boas' guidance, from personal observation supplemented by intensive field inquiry. Teit was married to a Thompson woman, spoke the Thompson language (Maud 1982:63), and lived with the last generation to have participated extensively in the precontact native life and to have made use of much of the old material culture. Many of the latter items Teit himself examined and describes, giving this segment of his ethnographic description a richness not found in later, more professional ethnographic accounts. Apparently Teit's Okanagan-specific information was derived from persons of Northern Okanagan affiliation (Spier 1938:3).

Teit, James A.: 1930c Tattooing and Face and Body Painting of the Thompson Indians[,] British Columbia. Edited by Franz Boas. Bureau of American Ethnology, 45th Annual Report, 1927-1928, pp. 397-439.

A compilation of detailed information collected after the preparation of his The Thompson Indians (1900) monograph. Although a few of the elderly still bore tattoo marks when Teit entered their region in the mid-i 800s, the practice of tattooing was rapidly abandoned after 1858 when White influence first became strong. The practice of facial and body painting was practically gone in the 1890s. Consequently most of Teit's data were informant-derived. These two studies represent a focused effort to secure all possible information regarding these two traditional cultural expressions.

Teit, James A.: 1937 More Thompson Indian Tales. Journal of American Folk-Lore 50:173-190.

Seven additional tales collected by Teit, edited by Lucy Kramer. Two are old-style myths involving coyote. One is a tradition of a hunter's buffalo journey to the Plains and of the traitorous actions of his wife. The remaining four, at root, embody elements and events from European folklore but typically modify, extend, and restructure them in various new ways. Even these narratives of European genesis are of ethnographic interest, for in some measure they are recast into a Thompson cultural context.

Texaco: 1969 Washington [State Highway Map].

Thompson, David: 1914 Journal of David Thompson, Oregon Historical Quarterly 15:39-63, 104-125.

The daily journal kept by Thompson of the North West Company on his canoe journey of exploration down the Columbia River from Kettle Falls to Astoria in July, 1811. Also his record of his return in July and August via canoe to the Snake River mouth and then on horseback to the confluence of the Palouse River and overland to the Spokane River. The importance of this detailed record for the Chelan section of his present study is that, in passing through the Chelan country on July 6, 1811, Thompson saw no Indians on the river.

Thompson, Laurence C.: 1976 The Northwest. In Native Languages of the Americas, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok, vol. 1, pp.359-426. Plenum Press, New York.

Includes a brief general introduction to the language families of the North Pacific area, summarizing their geographical distribution, their possible linkages into larger genetic groupings, and their internal language-level subdivisions. Most of the report is devoted to a valuable, detailed state-of-the-art survey of the Penutian, Wakashan, Chimakuan, Salishan, Kutenai, and Athapaskan families, cataloging the growth of knowledge for each and the specific contributions of individual linguists. A number of areal studies of supra-language-family phenomena are reviewed.

Thompson, Laurence C.: 1979 Salishan and the Northwest. In The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment, edited by Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun, pp. 692-765. University of Texas Press, Austin.

An up-to-date survey of the Salishan language family, both coastal and interior divisions. Discussed are such subjects as comparative phonology, comparative grammar, possible genetic relationships with other Indian language stocks, and research in progress.

Thwaites, Reuben Gold (editor): 1969 Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806. Reprinted. Arno Press, New York. Originally published 1904-1905 as The Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806. Dodd, Mead and Co., New York. 8 volumes.

A verbatim transcription of the voluminous field journals of Lewis and Clark and of the briefer records of two members of their expedition. This is a model of what publications of this sort should be. When both expedition leaders kept entries for the same day, both are reproduced in their entirety, even when largely duplicative. Idiosyncratic and variant spellings, unorthodox punctuation, grammatical lapses, field sketches and maps, and the like are all here, without editorial tinkering, though explanatory footnotes are provided. A splendid and indispensable publication for an understanding of the history of the Pacific Northwest and especially the geography, natural history, and ethnography of the Bitterroot, Clearwater, Snake, and lower Columbia Valleys when first seen by Whites. Especially noteworthy is the collection of expedition maps that comprises volume 8.

Turner, Nancy J.: 1978 Food Plants of British Columbia Indians, Part 2: Interior Peoples. British Columbia Provincial Museum, Handbook No. 36, Victoria.

A carefully prepared compendium of data by a botanist drawn from her own field inquiries and incorporating relevant ethnobotanical information from earlier ethnographic reports. It includes brief introductory summaries of the physical environment, the dietary characteristics of the aboriginal Indian foods, the gathering and preparation of the food plants, their seasonal procession, and the nature of traditional trade in plant foods. Most of the volume is concerned with individual food plants: their technical taxonomic and common name identifications, a botanical description, habitat data, their distribution in British Columbia, and especially the food uses to which the various Indian groups put the plants. The volume is very well illustrated, with many plates in color.

Turner, Nancy J.: 1979 Plants in British Columbia Indian Technology. British Columbia Provincial Museum, Handbook No. 38, Victoria.

This volume is patterned after the preceding food plant study, but focuses on ways in which indigenous plants were used in the traditional technology of the various Indian tribes of the province. All illustrations are, however, in black-and-white.

Turney-High, Harry Holbert: 1937 The Flathead Indians of Montana. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, no. 48.

A general and not everywhere fully competent ethnographic survey of the Flathead of the Bitterroot Valley, based on field research. Save in a comparative sense, it provides no information of direct relevance to the particular interests of this North Cascades study.

Turney-High, Harry Holbert: 1941 Ethnography of the Kutenai. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association, no. 56.

A general survey of the traditional culture of the Kutenai, with special attention to the Upper division. While the only study of Kutenai ethnography of broad coverage, its value is somewhat restricted by the author's limited understanding of native Plateau lifeways. Of interest for a few items of comparative information.

Underhill, Ruth: 1945 Indians of the Pacific Northwest. Indian Life and Customs, vol. V. United States Office of Indian Affairs, Education Division. Sherman Institute Press, Riverside, California.

A fine, comprehensive, popular summary of the traditional life mode of the coastal groups with occasional references to interior Indian tribes. It includes an unusually rich and informative collection of photographs and museum dioramas and of diagrams and descriptions of material culture objects, the processes of their manufacture, and their uses.

USGS (United States Geological Survey): 1953 (rev. 1965) Ritzvllle quadrangle, NL 11-1. 1-250,000.; 1954 (rev. 1963) Okanogan quadrangle, NM 11-10. 1-250,000.; 1955 (rev. 1962) Concrete quadrangle, NM 10-12. 1-250,000.; 1957 (rev. 1971) Wenatchee quadrangle, NL 10-3. 1-250,000.; 1974 North Cascades National Park, N4815-W12030/45x75.

Whitney, Stephen R.: 1983 A Field Guide to the Cascades & Olympics. The Mountaineers, Seattle.

An excellent popular summary of the physical aspects of the Cascades and Olympic areas -- geology, climate, and plant and animal distributions. Includes summaries of the ferns, flowering plants, butterflies, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals of these two regions, with black and white drawings of many forms and color reproductions of many plants, butterflies, and birds. For the biozones and their dominant plant forms heavy reliance is placed on the data of Krajina and of Franklin and Dyrness.

Wilkes, Charles: 1841 [Tribal Population] Estimate -- 1841. In l. l. Stevens 1855:p. 435.

A short table estimating the 1841 population of various tribes from the lower Columbia to Juan de Fuca Strait.

Wilson, Charles: 1866 Report on the Indian Tribes Inhabiting the Country in the Vicinity of the 49th Parallel of North Latitude. Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London 4:275-332.

Includes a section on the Cowichan in general from Vancouver Island to Fort Yale on the Fraser River, with occasional specific reference to the Chilliwack. Admirably detailed for its time, especially from one whose professional interests lay elsewhere, this report, presenting his own first-hand observations as a member of the British Boundary Commission in 1858-1860, provides some considerable information on a wide range of ethnographic subjects. Incorporated into the Chilliwack unit of my study are only such data as are explicitly linked with this tribe and those tribally unidentified data that are consistent with Duff's Chilliwack information and that expand upon it in meaningful ways.

Wilson, Charles: 1970 Mapping the Frontier, Charles Wilson's Diary of the Survey of the 49th Parallel, 1858-1862, while Secretary of the British Boundary Commission, edited by George F. G. Stanley. Macmillan of Canada, Toronto.

An important journal -- not a diary in the strict sense since many days and even weeks are skipped in the record -- in terms of understanding the geobioenvironment and traditional culture of the Chilliwack. Not an ethnography but a chronicle of his many weeks in 1858-1860 in the Chilliwack country -- on the lower and middle Chilliwack River, at Chilliwack Lake, and in the Cultus Lake region. The information concerning the Chilliwack and their homeland appears largely as occasional, brief comments peripheral to the Commission's principal surveying interest. But keen, low-key, factual, on-the-spot observations and experiences, they are all the more useful.

Winans, William P: 1871 [Report for 1870 on the Indians to the East of the Cascades.] In Report of the Secretary of the Interior for 1870, pp. 486-491. Exec. Doc., 3rd Sess., 41st Congress.

A report by the "farmer in charge" on the conditions in 1870 of the Indian groups of Washington east of the Cascades, including recommendations for improvements. The Chelan are lumped with the Entiat and Methow proper as subgroups of the "Mithouie." No observations are made on the Chelan in particular.

Wingert, Paul S.: 1949a Coast Salish Painting. In Indians of the Urban Northwest, edited by Marian W. Smith, pp. 77-91. Columbia University Press, New York.

Primarily a detailed description and analysis of the unique painted power objects -- especially "power boards" and small anthropomorphic figures -- of the Puget Sound Salish and of their use in shamanistic spirit-curing ceremonies. Some consideration is given to the descriptive, representational, and monochromatic styles of painting wooden sculptures among the peoples of the Strait of Georgia, Vancouver Island, and the Lower and Middle Fraser areas.

Wingert, Paul S.: 1949b American Indian Sculpture, A Study of the Northwest Coast. J. J. Augustin, New York.

An impressively intensive study of the wood carving art of the coastal Salishan groups from Vancouver Island and adjacent shores south to the Columbia River and in the Fraser drainage. All known sculptures from the region at the time in museum and other collections are described and many are illustrated. Through the use of published ethnographic information, their cultural contexts are examined in detail, but at a general level for the entire geographical area. Styles are classified and analyzed for figurines, large figures, house posts, post figures, figure reliefs, and masks. Tribal and regional distributions of these styles are described. Summary sections are provided on style centers, major traditions, marginal styles, and historical development. Data for the Upper Stalo specifically are, however, non-existent, save for one footnote: Wingert evidently located no carvings definitely attributable to these groups.

Wingert, Paul S.: 1952 Prehistoric Stone Sculpture of the Pacific Northwest. Portland Art Museum, Portland, Oregon.

A survey of the precontact stone and bone art of the Columbia Valley from Vantage to the river mouth, divided into three regional styles. Both sculptures associated with utilitarian objects (e.g., bowls, pestles) and those without such apparent connections are described. A shorter section is devoted to the Fraser River and Puget Sound areas. Fine photographs of 42 sculptures are reproduced.

World Aeronautical Chart, Lake Louise (216), 14th edition October 7,1951. US Air Force edition. 1:1,000,000.

Wydoski, Richard S. and Richard R. Whitney: 1979 Inland Fishes of Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle.

An illustrated guide to the riverine and lacustrine fish of Washington. Of relevance to this present study are the short sections describing the major drainages of the region and of Washington in particular, and outlining the general distribution of Washington fishes. Of special interest are the lengthy and detailed life history accounts of the various native and introduced species in the rivers and lakes of the State.

<<< Previous

<<< Contents>>>

noca/ethnography/references.htm
Last Updated: 10-Nov-2016