BIG HOLE Commemoration and Preservation: An Administrative History of Big Hole National Battlefield

¹ Edward Tabor Linenthal, Sacred Ground: Americans and their Battlefields (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois, 1991).

² Vegetation and wildlife are described in "Environmental Assessment, Proposed Sewage System, Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana," prepared by Denver Service Center, National Park Service, 1974, NPS History Division files (hereafter cited as NPS HD).

³ For a firsthand account (1831) of bison in the Big Hole, see Bertha Agnes Francis, The Land of the Big Snows, (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1952) p. 64.

⁴ Mary Paddock Berthold, Big Hole Journal (Detroit: Harlo Press, 1973), p. 52.

⁵ L. V. McWhorter, Hear Me My Chiefs! Nez Perce Legend and History (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1952), p. 368. Some Nez Perce claim that the valley was called another Nez Perce word meaning "Place of the Buffalo Calf"

⁶ In addition to the Indian trail that the Nez Perce followed in 1877, Francis documents the existence of "a very large Indian trail" that crossed the continental divide between Fort Lemhi and Horse Prairie, in The Land of the Big Snows, p. 76.

⁷ Francis, The Land of the Big Snows, pp. 76-79.

⁸ Merrill D. Beal, "I Will Fight No More Forever": Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce War (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1963), p. 112.

⁹ A. E. Rothermich, ed., "Early Days at Fort Missoula," in Historical Reprints, Paul C. Phillips, editor (Missoula: Montana State University, 1939), p. 11.

¹⁰ Aubrey L. Haines, An Elusive Victory: The Battle of the Big Hole (West Glacier, Montana: Glacier Natural History Association, 1991), p. 7.

¹¹ Haines, An Elusive Victory, p. 35.

¹² Beal "I Will Fight No More Forever," p. 113. The willows may have been less dense in 1877 than today due to occasional fires.

¹³ L. V. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf: His Own Story (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, Ltd., 1940), pp. 112-113.

¹⁴ Berthold Big Hole Journal, p. 53.

¹⁵ Bruce Hampton, Children of Grace: The Nez Perce War of 1877 (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1994), p. 158.

¹⁶ Beal "I Will Fight No More Forever," p. 116.

¹⁷ McWhorter, Yellow Wolf p. 117.

¹⁸ Mark H. Brown, The Flight of the Nez Perce (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1967), p. 255.

¹⁹ Brown, The Flight of the Nez Perce, pp. 255-256.

²⁰ Apparently some of the dead were taken away for later burial.

²¹ Brown, The Flight of the Nez Perce, p. 259. There is some question as to how many warriors stayed to conduct this siege and for how long.

²² Haines, An Elusive Victory, p. 106.

²³ Quoted in Haines, An Elusive Victory, p. 107.

²⁴ Beal "I Will Fight No More Forever," p. 135.

²⁵ Haines, An Elusive Victory, p. 108.

²⁶ G. 0. Shields, The Battle of the Big Hole (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., Publishers, 1889), p. 81.

²⁷ Another account, by Will Cave of the Bitterroot Volunteers, may be found in Nez Perce Indian War of 1877 and Battle of the Big Hole, printed by The Missoulian (date unknown, copy in vertical file at Ravalli County Museum). Cave states (p. 22): "On the 11th , when the soldiers and volunteers were burying their dead on the field, they found the Indian dead wrapped in robes, all in a row, under the edge of the river bank, with but a slight covering of earth, and were counted as being 89."

²⁸ Beal, "I Will Fight No More Forever," pp. 123, 127. The soldiers' bodies may have received similar treatment. One of the volunteers, Thomas C. "Bunch" Sherrill, reported many years later that "the Indians treated our dead good, as none of them were mutilated." Sherrill was referring, of course, to the Nez Perce Indians rather than the Bannock scouts. Others supported the claim that the Nez Perce did not scalp their enemies. However, Lt. Jr L. Van Orsdale stated that some of the soldier and citizen corpses were scalped in the weeks after the battle (see below). Years later he was very insistent on this point. G. 0. Shields in his book, The Battle of the Big Hole (pp. 88-89) quoted a January 4, 1889 letter by Van Orsdale: "About six weeks after the fight, I returned to the battle-ground to rebury our dead, many of them having been dug up by Indians, bears, and wolves; and, to destroy one more fiction which has obtained credence, to the effect that these Indians did not scalp their victims, I must say that both Captain Logan and Lieutenant Bradley, as well as several private soldiers, had been dug up and scalped, presumably by those Indians who had been left behind to care for the wounded hidden in the hills near there."

²⁹ See Granville Stuart's sketches, dated May 11,1878, which are included in the Big Hole files in the records of the National Park Service, History Division, Washington Office (hereafter WASO). Andrew Garcia saw the same scene in 1879 and described it from memory years later: "Some of the tepee poles of this once large Injun camp still lay scattered around. The peeled ones were as good as they were two years ago on the day when some unfortunate squaw hauled and set them up here, her lips breathing with song and laughter, not knowing that tomorrow would bring their death song." Tough Trip Through Paradise, edited by Bennett H. Stein (Sausalito, California: Comstock Edition, 1979), p. 275.

³⁰ Haines, An Elusive Victory, p. 113.

³¹ Haines, An Elusive Victory, p. 121; Rothermich, "Early Days at Fort Missoula," pp. 7-8.

³² Copy of letter on file at Big Hole National Battlefield Library, J. L. Van Orsdale personnel file.

³³ Haines, An Elusive Victory, p. 122.

³⁴ "Notes, Battlefield Monument, Points of Interest, Wisdom, MT.," October 7, 1921, untitled microfilm roll, Yellowstone National Park Archives (hereafter YNPA).

³⁵ Garcia, Tough Trip Through Paradise, p. 275 (italics added).

³⁶ J. B. Alshire, 2nd Endorsement, April 23, 1910, Box 2050, Central Classified Files (CCF) 1933-49, Record Group 79 (hereafter RG 79), National Archives II (hereafter NAII).

³⁷ Brown, The Flight of the Nez Perce, p. 259. There is some question as to how many warriors stayed to conduct this siege and for how long.

¹ Merrill D. Beal, "I Will Fight No More Forever," : Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce War (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1963), p. 141.

² Quoted in Aubrey Haines, An Elusive Victory: The Battle of the Big Hole (West Glacier, Montana: Glacier Natural History Association, 1991), p. 119.

³ The account by Joseph is suspect. Historian Steven Ross Evans has written that "it probably was based upon remarks made by Joseph through an interpreter, Arthur Chapman, before an informal meeting of congressmen and Indian Bureau officials. Joseph's testimony apparently then was adapted and modified by a sympathetic white editor for publication." (Voice of the Old Wolf: Lucullus Virgil McWhorter and the Nez Perce Indians, Pullman: WSU Press, 1996), p. 20.

⁴ "General John Gibbon: A Half Century of Duty and Honor," no author, no date, manuscript on file in Big Hole National Battlefield Library, p. 29.

⁵ Sketches on file in National Park Service, History Division, WASO.

⁶ Edward Tabor Linenthal, Sacred Ground: Americans and Their Battlefields (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), p. 131.

⁷ "General John Gibbon: A Half Century of Duty and Honor," p. 31.

⁸ W. W. Acker, Memorandum for First Assistant Secretary, April 9, 1910, Big Hole, Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II. A search of the records of the quartermaster's department in the National Archives failed to disclose any correspondence on where the idea for a monument originated.

⁹ Shields, The Battle of the Big Hole, p. 116.

¹⁰ Francis The Land of the Big Snows, pp. 151-172.

¹¹ U.S. Congress, Senate, 36th Cong., 1st sess., Subdivisions of Certain Land in Montana, Doc. No. 224, March 16, 1900, p. 2.

¹² U.S. Congress, Senate, 36th Cong., 1st sess., Subdivisions of Certain Land in Montana, Doc. No. 224, March 16, 1900, p. 2.

¹³ U.S. Congress, Senate, 36th Cong., 1st sess., Subdivisions of Certain Land in Montana, Doc. No. 224, March 16, 1900, p.1.

¹⁴ U.S. Congress, Senate, 36th Cong., 1st sess., Subdivisions of Certain Land in Montana, Doc. No. 224, March 16, 1900, p. 2.

¹⁵ W. W. Acker, Memorandum for First Assistant Secretary, April 9, 1910, Big Hole, Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.

¹⁶ See Hal Rothman, America's National Monuments: The Politics of Preservation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994).

¹⁷ Congressional Record, 59th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 40, pt. 2, p. 1407.

¹⁸ E. A. Hitchcock to John F. Lacey, February 13, 1906, Folder 173, L1429, Big Hole National Battlefield Archives (BHNBA).

¹⁹ E. A. Hitchcock to John F. Lacey, February 13, 1906, Folder 173, L1429, Big Hole National Battlefield Archives (BHNBA).

²⁰ E A. Hitchcock to John F. Lacey, February 13,1906, Folder 173, L1429, BHNBA.

²¹ Acting Commissioner F. F. Pollock to Register and Receiver, Missoula, Montana, October 26, 1906, Big Hole, Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.

²² Hal Rothman, America's National Monuments: The Politics of Preservation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994); Barry Mackintosh, Shaping the System (Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1991), p. 24.

²³ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, The Use Book (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1906), pp. 69-70.

²⁴ Commissioner of the General Land Office to Secretary of the Interior, November 2, 1906, File 1680 History: Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

²⁵ C. R. Pierce, "Memorandum for Boundaries," November 5, 1907, Folder 173, L1429, BHNBA.

²⁶ C. K. Wyman, Forest Supervisor, to the Forester, April 18, 1908, Folder 173, L1429, BHNBA.

²⁷ Congressional Record, 60th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 42, Pt. 1, p. 968. Unfortunately there is nothing in the Joseph M. Dixon papers (University of Montana, Mansfield Library Special Collections and Archives) on Dixon's involvement with the Big Hole battlefield.

²⁸ Two years later the War Department advised officials in the Interior Department that the fence was built and the Soldier's Monument restored. (See R. A. Ballinger, Memorandum for First Assistant Secretary, April 9, 1910, Big Hole, Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.)

²⁹ C. K. Wyman, Forest Supervisor to W. H. Utley, September 2, 1909, Folder 98 H14, BHNBA.

³⁰ Arthur M. Keas, Assistant Forest Ranger, no date, Folder 100 H1415, BHNBA.

³¹ 2d Endorsement, War Department, Office of the Quartermaster General, April 23, 1910, Big Hole, Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.

³² 6th Endorsement, Headquarters Department of Dakota, April 27, 1910, Big Hole, Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.

³³ Francis, The Land of the Big Snows, pp. 170-171.

³⁴ Jim Waltermire, certification, August 4, 1982, Folder 150, L1415, BHNBA. Evidence on this date is conflicting; see also Commissioner of the General Land Office to Register and Receiver, Missoula, Montana, February 20, 1915, Folder 157, L1425, BHNBA.

³⁵ General Land Office Plats, Township 2 South, Range 17 West (surveyed 1915, signed 1917) and Township 2 South, Range 16 West (surveyed 1899, signed 1900), on file with Bureau of Land Management, Billings, Montana.

³⁶ In 1993, archaeologist Doug Scott identified the "Mormon diggings "as a "depression, approximately 600' in diameter and varying from 10' to 20' in length...along the 6200 contour line near the southwest corner of the park boundary." (Recorded as MT Site 24BE 1643.) Scott also identified a probable sawmill site approximately 600 feet south of the Nez Perce village site and a probable blacksmith shop site near the southern end of the Nez Perce village site, which were likely associated with flume construction. Douglas Scott, "Rocky Mountain Region Archaeological Project Report: Non-battle archaeological sites at Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana," (report prepared for USDI NPS Midwest Archaeological Center, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1993), p. 7.

¹ Janene Caywood, Theodore Catton, and James McDonald, "Evaluation of Region 1 Forest Service-Owned Buildings for Eligibility to the National Register of Historic Places," prepared for United States Department of Agriculture, Region 1 Forest Service, Missoula, Montana, by Historical Research Associates, Inc., March 1991, p. 23.

² The Use of the National Forest Reserves: Regulations and Instructions, (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1905).

³ For example, see Clyde P. Fickes, Recollections (USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Missoula, Montana, 1972).

⁴ Arthur M. Keas, "District No. 7," August 23, 1912, File 1680 History, Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

⁵ Alva A. Simpson, "Unit Recreational Plan, Big Hole Battlefield, Beaverhead National Forest, Wisdom District," Folder 98, H14, BHNBA. Also see "Improvement Plan Gibbon's Battlefield" no date, File "Big Hole Battlefield, War Department files," Box 8, Entry 5, RG 79, NA II.

⁶ Aubrey Haines, An Elusive Victory: The Battle of the Big Hole (West Glacier, Montana: Glacier Natural History Association, 1991), p. 123.

⁷ lnformation provided by Wisdom Ranger District. Prior to the construction of the Gibbon's Battlefield Ranger Station, district rangers were Burt Gillis in the spring of 1907 and William H. Utley from the summer of 1907 to January 1912.

⁸ Ella C. Hathaway, "Battle of the Big Hole in August, 1877," July 1919, File 1680 History, Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

⁹ Hathaway, "Battle of the Big Hole in August, 1877."

¹⁰ Will C. Barnes, Assistant Forester, to Quartermaster General's Office, War Department, December 8, 1925, File "Big Hole Battlefield," Box 8, Entry 5 Records of the War Department relating to the National Parks, RG 79, NA II.

¹¹ Theo Shoemaker, Memorandum, October 22, 1925, Folder 142, K3827, BHNBA.

¹² General Land Office Plats, Township Nos. T2S R17W (surveyed 1915, signed 1917), on file with the Bureau of Land Management, Billings, Montana.

¹³ Ella C. Hathaway, "Historic Spots on the Big Hole Section Park-to-Park Highway," File 1680 History, Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service,

¹⁴ Theo Shoemaker, Memorandum, October 22, 1925, Folder 142, K3827, BHNBA.

¹⁵ Alva A. Simpson, "Unit Recreation Plan, Big Hole Battlefield, Beaverhead National Forest, Wisdom District," May 23, 1932, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

¹⁶ E. D. Sandvig, Forest Supervisor, to Regional Forester, June 19, 1935, File 1680 History, Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

¹⁷ Edmund B. Rogers, "Annual Report of the Big Hole Battlefield National Monument - 1940," File "Big Hole Reports 207," Box 2050, Big Hole Battlefield, CCF 1939-49, RG 79, NA II.

¹⁸ William B. Greeley, "Recreation in the National Forests," American Monthly Review of Reviews, (July 1924).

¹⁹ Theo Shoemaker, "Memorandum," October 22, 1925, Folder 142 K3827, BHNBA.

²⁰ Will C. Barnes, Assistant Forester, to Quartermaster General, April 29, 1926, File "Big Hole Battlefield, Box 8, Entry 5, Records of the War Department relating to the National Parks, 1892-1937, RG 79, NA II.

²¹ Will C. Barnes, Assistant Forester, to Quartermaster General, April 29, 1926, File "Big Hole Battlefield, Box 8, Entry 5, Records of the War Department relating to the National Parks, 1892-1937, RG 79, NA II.

²² M. H. Wolff, Assistant Regional Forester, to J. C. Whitham, Forest Supervisor, June 6, 1930, File 1680 History, Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

²³ J. C. Whitham, "Memorandum," May 4, 1931, File 1680 History, Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

²⁴ Alva A. Simpson, "Unit Recreation Plan, Big Hole Battlefield, Beaverhead National Forest, Wisdom District" May 23, 1932, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

²⁵ Hathaway, "Battle of the Big Hole in August 1877."

²⁶ This document appears on an untitled roll of microfilm in possession of Yellowstone National Park Archives. HRA provided a duplicate copy of the microfilm roll to Big Hole National Battlefield. Ramsey's authorship of the document is noted in Theodore Shoemaker, "Memorandum," October 22, 1925, Folder 142 K3827, BHNBA. Installation of the 37 signs is noted in "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument," File "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Montana," Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.

²⁷ "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument," File "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Montana," Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.

²⁸ John B. Somers, Forest Supervisor, to L. V. McWhorter, December 5, 1927, Folder 142, K3829, BHNBA.

²⁹ Will C. Barnes to Quartermaster General, April 29, 1926, W. R. Gibson, Colonel Q. M. Corps, to Barnes, June 14, 1928, Barnes to Quartermaster General, June 16, 1928, File "Big Hole Battlefield (War Department files), Box 8, Entry 5, Records of the War Department relating to the National Parks 1892-1937, RG 79, NA II.

³⁰ "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument," File "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Montana," Box 2050, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA II.

³¹ Alva A. Simpson, "Unit Recreation Plan, Big Hole Battlefield, Beaverhead National Forest, Wisdom District," May 23, 1932, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

³² E. D. Sandvig, Forest Supervisor, "Memorandum," June 19, 1935, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

³³ L. V. McWhorter to Marshall G. Ramsey, September 23, 1936, Folder 143, K3827, BHNBA.

³⁴ Alva A. Simpson, "Unit Recreation Plan, Big Hole Battlefield, Beaverhead National Forest, Wisdom District," May 23, 1932, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

³⁵ Marshall G. Ramsey to L. V. McWhorter, October 6, 1936, Folder 143, K3827, BHNBA.

³⁶ Steven Ross Evans, Voice of the Old Wolf: Lucullus Virgil McWhorter and the Nez Perce Indians (Pullman: WSU Press, 1996), pp. 1-8.

³⁷ Evans, Voice of the Old Wolf pp. 103-104.

³⁸ Evans, Voice of the Old Wolf pp. 107, 165.

³⁹ Evans, Voice of the Old Wolf p. 121.

⁴⁰ L. V. McWhorter to Marshall G. Ramsey, September 23, 1936, Folder 143, K3827, BHNBA; Evans, Voice of the Old Wolf p. 144.

⁴¹ Marshall G. Ramsey to L. V. McWhorter, October 6, 1936, Folder 143, K3827, BHNBA.

⁴² L. V. McWhorter to Marshall G. Ramsey, Senior Forest Ranger, November 18, 1936, Folder 143, K3827, BHNBA.

⁴³ Marshall G. Ramsey to L. V. McWhorter, July 1, 1937, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

⁴⁴ "Evans, Voice of the Old Wolf p. 155; L. V. McWhorter to Marshall G. Ramsey, July 31, 1937, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

⁴⁵ W. B. Willey, Forest Supervisor, to Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent, December 15, 1936, NPS WASO.

⁴⁶ V. T. Linthacum, Recreation Assistant, "Memorandum for General Information," November 20, 1935, File 1680 History - Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

⁴⁷ Helen Clark, "The Ghosted Silences of the Big Hole Battleground," Playgrounds of the Rockies, vol. 5, no. 4 (November 1962), p. 31.

⁴⁸ Barry Mackintosh, Shaping the System (Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1991).

⁴⁹ Roger W. Toll, Superintendent, to E. D. Sandvig, August 8, 1935, File 1680 History - Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

⁵⁰ Roger W. Toll, Superintendent, to E. D. Sandvig, Forest Supervisor, August 8, 1935, File 1680 History - Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

⁵¹ E. D. Sandvig, Forest Supervisor, to Regional Forester, June 19, 1935, File 1680 History - Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

⁵² E. D. Sandvig, Forest Supervisor, to Regional Forester, August 14, 1935, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

⁵³ Roger W. Toll, Superintendent, to E. D. Sandvig, Forest Supervisor, August 17, 1935, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

⁵⁴ Roger W. Toll to E. D. Sandvig, August 17, 1935, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA. The CCC apparently revisited the area sometime after 1937. When McWhorter learned in 1944 that the interpretive signs now bore the initials "C.C.C.," he wanted an explanation. He was told that the CCC boys had repaired or fixed up the markers and left their signature. See Evans, Voice of the Old Wolf p. 166.

⁵⁵ Marshall G. Ramsey to Forest Supervisor, October 28, 1935, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

⁵⁶ V. T. Linthacum, Recreation Assistant, "Memorandum for General Information," November 20, 1935, File 1680 History - Management of the Battlefield, Wisdom Ranger District, Beaverhead National Forest, USDA Forest Service.

⁵⁷ V. T. Linthacum, Recreation Assistant, "Memorandum for Lands and Supervisor," November 21, 1935, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

⁵⁸ E. D. Sandvig, Forest Supervisor, to District Ranger, May 26, 1936, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

⁵⁹ Alfred H. Schulmeyer, interview by Ted Catton, November 11, 1997.

¹ For a more complete discussion of this transition see Hal Rothman, America's National Monuments: The Politics of Preservation (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1994), William C. Everhart, The National Park Service (New York, Washington, London: Praeger Publishers, 1972), and Freeman Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957).

² Everhart, The National Park Service, pp. 28-33; Barry Mackintosh, Shaping the System (Washington D.C.: US Department of the Interior, 1985), p. 24; Rothman, America's National Monuments, p. 162. National Park Service responsibility for conservation of historic resources was further defined with passage of the Historic Sites Act of 1935, establishing "a national policy to preserve for public use historic sites, buildings and objects of national significance." Assigned primary responsibility for implementation, the Park Service established a Branch of Historic Sites and a museum division within the existing Branch of Research and Education (later renamed the Branch of Interpretation). Personnel within the varied arms of these two branches worked closely with the evolving "Master Plan" concept (assigned to the Branch of Plans and Design) whereby interpretation and museum functions and facilities were integrated into a park's total plan. Representatives from each of the branches were assigned to the Regional Offices, established in 1937 as the first line of contact and technical support for park field offices. At the park level, responsibility for museum administration, selection of interpretive personnel, and development of a park- specific "plan of administration of educational activities" was delegated to the park's chief naturalist. The naturalist reported to the appropriate regional office and collaborated with technicians from the Branch of Interpretation and the Branch of Historic Sites. Russ Olsen, "Administrative History: Organizational Structures of the National Park Service, 1917 to 1985," 1985, on file at the University of Montana Library, Documents Division, pp. 47, 55.

³ Rothman, America's National Monuments, p. 170.

⁴ Rothman, America's National Monuments, pp. 188-192.

⁵ Rothman, America's National Monuments, p. 201.

⁶ Federal emergency programs organized under ECW included the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the Public Works Administration, the Works Progress Administration, and the Civil Works Administration.

⁷ Roger W. Toll, Superintendent [Yellowstone National Park] to The Director, National Park Service, August 20, 1935, Folder 149, L14, BHNBA.

⁸ Roger W. Toll, Superintendent [Yellowstone National Park] to The Director [Cammerer], National Park Service, August 20, 1935, Folder 149, L14, BHNBA.

⁹ Howard W. Baker, "Report to the Chief Architect on Big Hole Battlefield Nat'l Mon.," June 17, 1937, Folder 2, Yellowstone BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA.

¹⁰ The report by Peyton and Hummel (see below) refers to present arrangements for on-site administration that strongly suggests that Peyton occupied the cabin in 1938. Aubrey Haines notes that Peyton had oversight of the battlefield in 1939 (An Elusive Victory, p. 42).

¹¹ Hugh Peyton and Edward A. Hummel, "Field Report Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Wisdom, Montana," Folder 3, Yellowstone BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA.

¹² The decision to acquire the minimum acreage was predicated on NPS reluctance to commit to long-term administration of the site. Region II Director Thomas Allen remembered that: "somewhat more than a year ago recommendations were submitted to the Director as to the establishment of boundaries at the Big Hole Battlefield National Monument in Montana. These recommendations stated a maximum proposed boundary and a minimum proposed boundary. The Director decided to establish the minimum proposed boundary on the basis that the area was of state significance only and not of national significance. An Executive Order creating the boundary to this limitation was secured." Memorandum, Regional Director to Mr. Vint and Mr. Ronald Lee, February 13, 1940, WASO. Emphasis added.

¹³ Presidential Proclamation No. 2339, June 29, 1939, Folder 173, L1429, BHNBA.

¹⁴ Arno B. Cammerer, Director [NPS], to the Secretary [of the Interior], January 10, 1939, "Special File," General Correspondence, December 1933-April 1956, BHNBA.

¹⁵ M. L. Wilson, Secretary, to the Secretary of the Interior, June 10, 1939, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

¹⁶ This included 160 acres, south of the monument, owned by the Federal Land Bank and 40 acres belonging to Frank Ritschel, incorporating the Indian Village. USFS officials estimated that the Federal Land Bank property could be purchased at $10 per acre. Although regional Historian Hummel "believed" that the Ritschel land would be "quite expensive to purchase" no dollar estimates are provided in the correspondence reviewed to date (Regional Landscape Architect to Resident Landscape Architect Hill, September 18, 1939, File 602-01, Box 2051, Entry 7, CCF 1933-1949, RG79, NA II). In March 1940, Senior Beaverhead National Forest Ranger M. Ramsey – "knowing of" the Park Service's interest in the Encampment Area – approached Frank Ritschel in March 1940. Ramsey proposed a land transfer, whereby Ritschel would receive a tract of USFS land on the open hillside north of the battlefield (the Nez Perce Horse Pasture/Twin Trees area), in exchange for his 40 acres east of the monument at the Indian Village site. Forest Supervisor W. B. Willey "saw no reason why some form of exchange cannot be worked out for National Forest lands near the battlefield area in order to increase the area now controlled by the Department of the Interior" and the proposal was presented to Yellowstone National Park Assistant Chief Ranger Hugh Peyton. Despite this initial concurrence on the part of USFS officials and Ritschel's professed interest in the exchange, no NPS response has been found and the land exchange was never initiated (M. G. Ramsey, Sr. Forest Ranger, to Mr. Hugh Peyton, Yellowstone National Park, March 8,1940; W. B. Willey, Forest Supervisor, to Ranger Ramsey, March 12, 1940, Folder 100, H1415, BHNBA).

¹⁷ Sanford Hill, Resident Landscape Architect [YELL], Hugh Peyton, Assistant Chief Ranger [YELL], W. E. Kearns, Assistant Naturalist [YELL], "Special Report on Big Hole National Monument, Wisdom, Montana, to the Regional Landscape Architect, National Park Service, Region II," n.d. (based on July 12, 1939 field visit), File 602- 01, Box 2051, Entry 7, CCF 1933-1949, RG79, NA II.

¹⁸ Sanford Hill, Resident Landscape Architect [YELL], Hugh Peyton, Assistant Chief Ranger [YELL], W. E. Kearns, Assistant Naturalist [YELL], "Special Report on Big Hole National Monument, Wisdom, Montana, to the Regional Landscape Architect, National Park Service, Region II," n.d. (based on July 12, 1939 field visit), File 602- 01, Box 2051, Entry 7, CCF 1933-1949, RG79, NA II; Aubrey Haines, interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

¹⁹ See, for example, Marcella Sherfy, "Honesty in Interpreting the Cultural Past," Parks, Vol. 3, No. 4, Jan-Feb March 1979, pp. 13-14 and Linenthal, Sacred Ground, p. 5.

²⁰ Memorandum Regional Director [Allen] to Mr. Vint and Mr. Ronald Lee, February 13, 1940, WASO.

²¹ Rogers to Regional Director, May 3, 1941, Folder 37, D18, BHNBA. Although the draft 1942 Master Plan guided trail and sign location at the battlefield through the I 940s, there is no evidence that it was ever finalized. An approved document was not found at BHNBA, Yellowstone National Park Library and Archives, or the National Archives. It is also not on file at the Technical Information Center, Denver Service Center, Denver, Colorado or at Harpers Ferry Center, West Virginia.

²² Newton B. Drury, Director, to the Regional Directors, March 9, 1945, File: Oct. 1952-Dec. 1962, BIHO, L1417, Box L-26, National Archives and Records Administration, Kansas City (hereafter NAKC); Unsigned, Boundary Status Report, March 9, 1945, Folder 155, L1419 and L1425, BHNBA.

²³ Warren F. Hamilton, Acting [Yellowstone] Superintendent, "Boundary Status Report," January 11,1956; Lemuel A. Garrison, Superintendent [Yellowstone] and Howard W. Baker, Regional Director, "Boundary Status Report," December 1, 1961, Folder 155, L1419 and L1425, BHNBA; Director's 1945 decision, recounted in Lawrence C. Merriam, Regional Director, to Superintendent [YELL], March 28, 1950, Special File, Big Hole National Monument, General Correspondence, December 1933-April 1956, NAKC.

²⁴ Warren L. Anderson, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], to Chief Ranger's Office [YELL], September 20, 1952, Folder 17, BIHO 3533, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA; Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL] to [Lawrence C. Merriam] Regional Director, Region H, March 10, 1950, Folder 17, BIHO 3533, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA. In a representative monthly report, Ranger Samuel Beal reported: "my custodian activities have consisted of meeting the public, removing the stumps of the trees killed by the ... beetle infestation [of the 1920s], and painting.... The toilets have been painted and I am now doing several signs that were made in 1922" (Samuel M. Beal, Ranger [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," July 1944, File 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA).

²⁵ Arno B. Cammerer, Director, to Roger W. Toll, [YELL] Superintendent, July 25, 1935, WASO.

²⁶ Acting Supervisor of Historic Sites to Regional Director Region II and Regional Historian Region II, September 27, 1940; Flora Hirschey, Sec't Big Hole Road Association to Hon. Harold F. Ickes, Secretary of the Interior, October 28, 1939; Senator Burton K. Wheeler to Ickes, October 31, 1939; Mrs. J. Atwood Maulding, Director of Personnel, to Wheeler, December 22, 1939; Assistant Secretary [of the Interior] to Wheeler, November 8, 1939; Ronald F. Lee, Supervisor of Historic Sites, to Honorable J. Thorkelson, House of Representatives, November 21, 1939. All from WASO. Effective off-site administration was further hampered both by distance – Yellowstone headquarters at Mammoth Hot Springs were a difficult 240 miles south of the monument and the Yellowstone chief ranger or his assistant often managed only an annual visit – and also by poor communication facilities. Until ca. 1950, the battlefield ranger communicated with Yellowstone officials by post or over the Forest Service line in Wisdom. This system "is unreliable since there are many times when no one is in the office to make the connection." Breynton R. Finch, Assistant Chief Ranger [YELL] to Chief Ranger [YELL], October 11, 1949, Folder 17, BIHO 3533, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

²⁷ Warren F. Hamilton, Acting Superintendent [YELL], to Regional Director, Region II [James V. Lloyd], February 3, 1953, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

²⁸ Fred T. Johnson, Acting Superintendent [YELL] to Mr. Warren L. Anderson, February 21, 1952, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA. Anderson was offered $3,175 per annum, minus "standard" (undefined) deductions for meals, lodging, and medical expenses. In 1953, this position was upgraded from a GS4 to a GS5 (Warren F. Hamilton, Acting Superintendent [YELL], to Michael Sedar, February 9, 1953; James V. Lloyd, Acting Regional Director, to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, February 20, 1953. Both in Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA).

²⁹ R.W.T. [Roger W. Toll] to Dr. Bauer, October 22, 1935, WASO; Supervisor of Historic Sites to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, April 7, 1939, WASO; Chief, Research and Survey Section, Branch of Historic Sites, to the Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, November 13, 1939, File: Big Hole, Box 2050, Entry 7, CCF 37-49, RG79, NAII; Samuel M. Beal, Ranger [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," July 1944, File 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA; Michael Sedar, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," June 30, 1947, Folder 13, Box: Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

³⁰ Monthly Narrative Reports, ca. 1939-ca. 1955, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA, passim; Silcox, quoted in M.H. Wolff, Assistant Regional Forester, to Willey, Forest Supervisor, September 28, 1937, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA; Folder 98, H14, BHNBA, passim. For an expanded discussion of USFS/NPS "turf wars" see Rothman, pp. 140-184 and Robert Righter, Crucible for Conservation: The Creation of Grand Teton National Park, (Boulder, Colorado: Associated University Press, 1983), passim.

³¹ V. T. Linthacum, Recreation Assistant, "Memorandum for Lands and Supervisor," November 21, 1935, Folder 98, H14, BHNBA.

³² Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL], "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument Administration and Personnel Annual Report," October 30, 1942, File: "207, Annual Rpt. Supt," Box 2050, Entry 7, CCF 1932-1949, RG79, NAIl, p. 2; Charles E. Martin, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," June 30, 1955, Folder 14, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA; Monthly Narrative Reports, ca. 1939-ca. 1955, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA, passim.; Stanley McComas, Assistant Chief Ranger, "Revised General Information and Park Prospectus Sections for Big Hole Battlefield National Monument Master Plan," n. d. (ca. April 1952), Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA. The United States Forest Service assumed responsibility for the graded summer-use road over Gibbon's Pass. Through the late 1940s, Beaverhead and Deer Lodge counties' jointly funded improvements to the county road between Anaconda and the Big Hole Valley while the State was responsible for reconstruction of State Highway 91 to modern width and stability standards (Samuel M. Beal, Ranger [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," August, 1944, File: Samuel Beal, Correspondence 1944-1945, Box: Curatorial, BHNBA; Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL], to the Director, August 27, 1941, Folder 207, Annual Rpt. Supt," Box 2050, Entry 7, CCF 1932-1949, RG79, NAIl, pp. 3-4).

³³ W. M. Stone, Secretary Beaverhead Chamber of Commerce, to Warren L. Anderson, Ranger in Charge, Sept. 17, 1952, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

³⁴ David de L. Condon, Chief Park Naturalist [YELL] to Assistant Chief Ranger McComas, November 12, 1952, Folder 45, D18, BHNBA.

³⁵ Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL], "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument Administration and Personnel Annual Report," October 30,1942, File: "207-01, Annual Rpt. Supt," Box 2050, Entry 7, CCF 1932- 1949, RG79, NAIl, p. 2; Monthly Report, June 1939, Folder 13, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA; Monthly Narrative Reports, ca. 1939-1955, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA, passim.

³⁶ Stanley McComas, Assistant Chief Ranger, "Revised General Information and Park Prospectus Sections for Big Hole Battlefield National Monument Master Plan," n. d. (ca. April 1952), Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

³⁷ Frank Mattson to Mr. Hamilton, n.d. [ca. 1941], File 37, D18, BHNBA.

³⁸ Warren L. Anderson, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," July 31, 1952; Michael Sedar, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," July 31, 1954. Both in Folder 14, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

³⁹ Olaf T. Hagan, Big Hole National Monument leaflet, 1955 as quoted in George F. Baggley, Chairman, Region Two Mission 66 Committee, to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, January 26, 1956, Book #1, Mission 66 BIHO, Box A-3 1, Kansas City NARA. Robert M. Utley, forward, in Linenthal, Sacred Ground, p. ix.

⁴⁰ Robert M. Utley, forward, in Linenthal, Sacred Ground, p. x.

⁴¹ Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL], "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument Administration and Personnel Annual Report," October 30, 1942, Folder 207-01, Box 2050, Entry 7, CCF 1932-1949, RG79, NAII, p. 2; Fred W. Warders, Jr., Ranger in Charge [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report, September 2, 1950, Folder 13, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

⁴² Maynard Barrows, Chief Ranger [YELL] to Files, December 10, 1946, Folder 1, Box 1, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA. In 1951, seasonal ranger Ted Hackett alerted the Chief Ranger's office to two errors in monument signage, one dating to USFS interpretive efforts and the second a typographic mistakes made in the routing of the new NPS "rustic" signs from the USFS painted signs. The twin trees sign, Hackett noted, stated that a Nez Perce sniper was shooting from behind the tree, from whence he would not have been able to see the battlefield. The sign was amended to indicate that the sniper shot from the south tree. The marker northeast of the museum, along the edge of the soldier trenches was corrected to indicated that Oscar Clark [rather than Claire], Sam Chaffin, Rite, Sam Durches, Howard, and other soldiers occupied the trenches (W. Ted Hackett, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], to Chief Ranger's Office, Yellowstone National Park, September 23, 1951, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA). In 1952, seasonal ranger Warren L. Anderson removed the sign marking the site where Lt. W. L. English received his fatal wounds, from which, the marker contended, he died 24 hours later. The New Northwest (Deer Lodge), Anderson noted, reported in November of 1877 that English, Company I, had received fatal wounds to the bowels, ear, scalp, and wrist from which he died on August 20, 1877, in a Deer Lodge hospital. In that "the source of all the information on the marker is considered to be unreliable, since part of the information has been shown to be untrue" the marker was removed pending notification from the Chief Ranger's Office (Warren L. Anderson, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], to Chief Ranger's Office [YELL], September 12, 1952, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

⁴³ Charles E. Martin, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," July 31, 1955, Folder 14, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

⁴⁴ Warren L. Anderson, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], to Chief Ranger's Office [YELL], September 12, 1952, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA; David de L. Condon, Chief Park Naturalist [YELL] to Assistant Chief Ranger McComas [YELL], November 12, 1952, Folder 45, D18, BHNBA. Condon's modifications to the text suggested by Anderson included changing "attackers" to soldiers.

⁴⁵ In April 1995, the Park Service honored Thain for his efforts to preserve important historical sites in north-central Idaho and western Montana (Susan Buchel, Unit Manager NEPE-BIHO) to Dr. H. Duane Hampton, February 28, 1995, K38, BHNBA).

⁴⁶ W. Ted Hackett, Ranger in Charge [BIHO] to Chief Ranger Skinner and Assistant Chief Ranger McComas, [YELL], August 12, 1951, Folder 93, D66, BHNBA; Mattes to White, January 4, 1951, quoted in John S. McLaughlin to Superintendent Yellowstone National Park, September 4, 1951, Folder 93, D66, BHNBA.

⁴⁷ Susan Buchel, U nit Manager NEPE-BIHO) to Dr. H. Duane Hampton, February 28, 1995, K38, BHNBA.

⁴⁸ Warren, L. Anderson, Ranger in Charge [BIHO] to Stanley McComas, Assistant Chief Ranger [YELL], July 28, 1952, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

⁴⁹ Ra1ph H. Lewis, Museum Curatorship in the National Park Service, 1904-1982 (Washington, D. G. : Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Curatorial Services Division, 1993), pp. 291-292.

⁵⁰ Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL], "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument Administration and Personnel Annual Report," October 30, 1942, File: "207-01, Annual Rpt. Supt," Box 2050, Entry 7, CCF 1932- 1949, RG79, NAII, p. 2.

⁵¹ Maynard Barrows, Chief Ranger [YELL] to Samuel M. Beal, Seasonal Ranger, September 2, 1944; Beal, "Monthly Narrative Report," September 15, 1944; Beal to Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL], August 28, 1944; Beal, "Monthly Narrative Report," September 15, 1944; C. Max Bauer, Chief Naturalist [YELL] to Beal, August 25, 1944; Earl M. Welton, District Forest Ranger, to Forest Supervisor, Beaverhead National Forest, September 4, 1944. All in File: Samuel Beal, Correspondence 1944-1945, Box: Curatorial, BHNBA.

⁵² Maynard Barrows, Chief Ranger [YELL] to Files, December 10, 1946, File 1, Box 1, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA, emphasis added.

⁵³ W. Ted Hackett, Ranger in Charge [BIHO] to Chief Ranger's Office, YELL, September 23, 1951, Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA; Stanley McComas, Assistant Chief Ranger, "Revised General Information and Park Prospectus Sections for Big Hole Battlefield National Monument Master Plan," n. d. (ca. April 1952), Folder 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA; Aubrey Haines, interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

⁵⁴ Pierce study cited in USDI NPS, "Resources Management Plan, Cultural Component, Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana" (USDI NPS Rocky Mountain Region, 1987), p. I-13.

⁵⁵ Lawrence C. Merriam, Regional Director, to Superintendent [YELL], March 28, 1950, Special File, Big Hole National Monument, General Correspondence, December 1933-April 1956, NAKC.

⁵⁶ Breynton R. Finch, Assistant Chief Ranger [YELL], to Chief Ranger [YELL], October 11, 1949, Folder 17, BIHO 3533, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA.

⁵⁷ Lawrence C. Merriam, Regional Director, to Superintendent [YELL], March 28, 1950, Special File, Big Hole National Monument, General Correspondence, December 1933-April 1956, NAKC.

⁵⁸ Fred W. Warders, Ranger in Charge [BIHO], "Monthly Narrative Report," September 18, 1950, Folder 13, Monthly Reports, YELL BIHO Files, BHNBA. Edmund B. Rogers, Superintendent [YELL], to Regional Director, Region II [Howard Baker], March 19, 1954, Folder 22, A6423, BHNBA, emphasis added; Howard W. Baker, Regional Director, to Superintendent Yellowstone National Park [Rogers], March 15, 1954, Folder 22, A6423, BHNBA. Although Mattes' preliminary evaluation of the national significance of the site is cited and paraphrased in numerous correspondence, including the Rogers/Baker series cited here, no formal report based on his September 1950 field visit was prepared. In 1955, Acting Region II Director George F. Baggley wrote that "Mr. Mattes has been quite fully occupied in handling technical supervision of all Missouri River Basin historical and archeological survey and salvage programs.... At this date we believe it would be pointless to work up a special report based on the 1950 field review... . We believe the same objective will be achieved for present purposes by your MISSION 66 prospectus" (George F. Baggley to Superintendent, December 9, 1955, Folder Oct. 1952-Dec. 1962 BIHO, Box L-26, NAKC).

⁵⁹ These units included Millerton Lake Recreation Area, Platt National Park, Mound City Group National Monument, Moore's Creek National Military Park, Natchez Trace Parkway, and Lehman Caves National Monument (Ise, Our National Park Policy, p. 522). In 1953, the Secretary of the Interior appointed a team to survey the different bureaus within the Department and to make recommendations "for more efficiency and economy in government operations." Transfer of substandard properties from the National Park Service was included in their recommendations (Stanley McComas, Assistant Chief Ranger [YELL], to Mrs. Marion Place, Butte, Montana, September 10, 1954, Folder 151, L1417, BHNBA).

⁶⁰ Barry Mackintosh, "Divested National Park System Units: An Analysis," June 1995, copy provided by the author.

⁶¹ "Dillon to Fight Monument Closing," The Daily Interlake, Kalispell, Montana, January 13, 1954; Senator Mike Mansfield to the Hon. Conrad L. Wirth, January 14, 1954; Senator James E. Murray to Mr. R. F. Lee, Assistant Director, National Park Service, January 15, 1954; Conrad L. Wirth to James E. Murray, January 25, 1954; telegraph, Conrad L. Wirth to the Honorable J. Hugo Aronson, Governor of Montana, September 10, 1954; Howard W. Baker, Regional Director [Region II], to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park [Rogers], March 15, 1954; Edmund B. Rogers to the Director, November 29, 1955. All in Folder Oct. 1952-Dec. 1962 BIHO, Box L-26, NAKC.

⁶² Edmund B. Rogers to the Director, November 29, 1955, Folder Oct. 1952-Dec. 1962 BIHO, Box L-26, NAKC.

¹ Conrad L. Worth, Parks, Politics, and the People (Norman: University of Nebraska Press, 1980), p. 242; Report of the Director, NPS, to Secretary of Interior, 1954, reprint from the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, Department of Interior (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office), 1954, p. 334; "The U.S. is Outgrowing Its Parks," U.S. News and World Report, June 10, 1955, p. 79.

² Wirth Parks, Politics, and the People, p. 474.

³ Aubrey L. Haines, An Elusive Victory. The Battle of the Big Hole (West Glacier, Montana: Glacier Natural History Association, 1991), pp. ix-x.

⁴ Aubrey L. Haines, Park Historian (Yellowstone), to the Superintendent, April 13, 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA.

⁵ Roy E. Appleman, Staff Historian, "Report on Visit to Big Hole Battlefield, Montana, 7 July 1956," September 17, 1956, WASO.

⁶ USDI NIPS, "Mission 66 for Big Hole Battlefield National Monument," n.d., WASO. pp. 2-3; Jack R. Williams, "Master Plan for the Preservation and Use of Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Mission 66 Edition," March 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA, p. 9.

⁷ Roy E. Appleman, Staff Historian, "Report on Visit to Big Hole Battlefield, Montana, 7 July 1956," September 17, 1956, WASO; Jack R. Williams, "Master Plan for the Preservation and Use of Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Mission 66 Edition," March 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA, p. 5; "Highlight Briefing Statement, 1966 Calendar Year, Superintendent's Annual Report, 1965, A262 1, BHNBA.

⁸ Garrison to Baker, January 30, 1958, Book #1 Mission 66 BIHO, Box A-31, Kansas City NARA.. Folder: 148, K54, BHNBA, passim. Folder: 5, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA, passim.

⁹ Rickey was accompanied in the field by Robert Condie, who had assisted McWhorter, and was able to generally identify the limits to the staked area. Not until 1961, however, did park historians locate a copy of McWhorter's base map.

¹⁰ Roy E. Appleman, Staff Historian, to Chief, Branch of National Park Service Planning, January 30, 1961, History File, WASO; Don Rickey, "Field Research, Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, July 16-22, 1959," n.d. (ca. 1959), WASO; George F. Baggley, Acting Regional Director, to The Director, April 17, 1961, Folder: 158, L1425, BHNBA; Charles W. Porter, III, Acting Chief Historian, to Superintendent, Big Hole Battlefield, January 1962, File 1.1 H14, Box 6, 079-76.D 1229, RG 79, NAIl.

¹¹ Jack R. Williams, Acting Superintendent, "Fiscal Year Annual Report for Big Hole Battlefield National Monument," 1961, A2621, BHNBA; Jack R. Williams, "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument 1961-1963," 1991, Folder: 99, H1417, BHNBA.

¹² Those involved in the decision included Ed Hummel, "Red" Hill, Howard Baker, Merrill Mattes, Edward Rogers, Luis Gastellum, Bob Mclntrye, Frank Mattson, Bill Rosenberg, Ted Wirth, Lon Garrison, Dave Condon, Brent Finch, Weldon Gratton, Roy Appleman, Aubrey Haines, Jack Williams, Bob Bums, Warren Hamilton, David Heib, and NPS Acting Director Hillory A. Tolson. Appleman, Hamilton, and (briefly, in the spring of 1962) Director Tolson were the sole proponents of the north-slope site. Garrison, Mattson, Williams, and Haines led the charge for the Ruby Bench site. Williams, Acting Superintendent, Big Hole, to Superintendent, Yellowstone, April 20, 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA.

¹³ Roy E. Appleman, Staff Historian, "Report on Visit to Big Hole Battlefield, Montana, 7 July 1956," September 17, 1956, WASO; Chief, Division of Interpretation, to Regional Director, September 26, 1956, WASO; National Park Service Director to Regional Director, Region II, April 5, 1961, History File, WASO; D18, BHNBA, passim. See, for example, the draft 1957 development prospectus (which excluded the Ruby Bench from purchase), the BIHO Boundary Status Report, January 13, 1961 (which proposed purchase of the bench site), and Merrill J. Mattes, Acting Regional Chief of Interpretation to the Regional Director, November 29, 1956, Folder: 38, D18, BHNBA.

¹⁴ Correspondence indicates that Williams worked closely with Yellowstone Historian Aubrey Haines on the language and focus of the Mission 66 prospectus. Haines was a vocal supporter of the Ruby Bench construction site. Williams, "Master Plan for the Preservation and Use of Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Mission 66 Edition," March 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA, p. 5; David L. Heib, Regional Chief of Boundary Studies, to Regional Director, Region II, September 23, 1959, Book #1 April 1953-January 1963, D30, Box D-68, NAKC; Roy E. Appleman to Chief Division of History and Archeology, August 9, 1962, WASO; Aubrey Haines, Yellowstone Park Historian, to the Superintendent [Yellowstone], April 13, 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA; Garrison to Regional Director, Region II, November 24,1961, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA.

¹⁵ In August, 1963, a modified cooperative forest fire control agreement supplemented the agreement executed in March 1950. Beaverhead National Forest and Big Hole Battlefield personnel agreed to "watch for and report all fires discovered on the other agency's territory. In addition, the agreement stipulated that the cost of fires entirely on or of threat to the lands of one agency would be paid for by that agency. Fires on the lands of both agencies would be adjusted between the agencies on the basis of the proportional acreage burned. "Cooperative Forest Fire Control Agreement Between the United States Department of the Interior.. . and the United States Department of Agriculture ...," signed Lemuel A. Garrison, Superintendent Yellowstone National Park, August 16, 1963, and Victor N. Stokes, Supervisor, Beaverhead National Forest, August 12, 1963.

¹⁶ Jack R. Williams, "Master Plan for the Preservation and Use of Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Mission 66 Edition," March 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA, p. 5. The monument development schedule included Roads and Trails (major and minor roads; construction, reconstruction, and expansion of interpretive trails and reconstruction of signs; construction of 2 footbridges); Buildings and Utilities (water, power, and sewer systems; visitor center and maintenance building; 3 three-room residences and a four-unit apartment; comfort station); and Miscellaneous improvements (entrance development and signs; boundary fence; site landscape improvements.)

¹⁷ Ibid.

¹⁸ Jack R. Williams, interview by Ann Hubber, June 22, 1998; Linenthal, Sacred Ground. Americans and Their Battlefields (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991), p. 129.

¹⁹ Ben H. Thompson, Assistant Director, to the Honorable Wayne N. Aspinall, Chairman, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, United States House of Representatives, n.d. (ca. April 4, 1963); John A. Carver, Jr., Assistant Secretary of the Interior, to the Honorable Henry M. Jackson, Chairman, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, United States Senate, March 22, 1963; Conrad Wirth, Director, National Park Service, to Legislative Counsel, Office of the Solicitor, June 22, 1962, all in "Big Hole National Battlefield," Branch of History Legislative File, WASO; Congressional Record – Senate, 88th Congress 1st Session, Vol. 109 Part 5.

²⁰ Specifically, the Park Service acquired 100 acres of the horse pasture, including the twin trees (SW¼ SE ¼, SE¼ SW¼, and ExSW¼ SW¼ Section 13) and 60 acres at the howitzer emplacement and hillside below (E½ NE¼ SE¼ Section 23 and NW¼ SW¼, W½ SE¼ Section 24) from the Forest Service. Private land authorized for purchase included 80 acres incorporating the Nez Perce Camp (W½ NE¼ Section 24) and 226 acres incorporating a development site, access thereto from State Highway 43, and the foreground of the battlefield (E½ SW¼ SW¼, E½ SW¼, W½ SE¼, Section 24 and those portions of the NE¼ NW¼ and the NW¼ NE¼ Section 25 north of the right of way of State Highway 43). All private land was owned by the Clemow brothers. Action Regional Chief of Recreation Resource Planning to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, February 20, 1962, Folder: 151, L1417, BHNBA.

²¹ Garrison to Rasmussen, September 9,1963, Folder: 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA.

²² The state did not accept concurrent jurisdiction until the late 1970s. See chapter 6. For a comprehensive discussion of "proprietorial," "exclusive," and "concurrent" jurisdiction see Jackson E. Price, Special Assistant to the Director, "Federal Legislative Jurisdiction of Lands in Areas Administered by the National Park Service," May 10, 1972, file: A5427, Box 1, 764543, RG 79, National Archives and Records Administration, Denver (hereafter NAD).

²³ Jack R. Williams, Aztec Ruins National Monument, to Thain White, July 3, 1963, Folder: 6, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA.

²⁴ Lemuel A. Garrison to Howard Baker, July 3,1958 and Baker to Garrison, July 11, 1958, L1417, BIHO October 1952-December 1962, Box L-26, Kansas City NARA; Robert L. Burns, Ranger in Charge BIHO, to D. R. Nielson, State Supervisor, Bureau of Land Management, June 19,1959, Folder: 158, L1425, BHNBA; Boundary Status Report, Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, November 28, 1960, p. 3, L1417, BIHO October 1952-December 1962, Box L-26, Kansas City NARA; Robert L. Burns, Management Assistant, Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Fiscal Year Annual Report, "Land Trade," Superintendent's Annual Reports, A2621; Jack A. Anderson, Yellowstone Superintendent, to Director, Midwest Region, May 26, 1970, File L14, Box L10, Yellowstone National Park Archives; Anonymous, "History of Two Specific Forty Acre Plots (Acquired Land for Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 173, L1429, BHNBA.

²⁵ Garrison to Martin Clemow, July 20, 1962, Folder: 158, L1425, BHNBA; Boundary Status Report, Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, November 28, 1960, p. 3, L1417, BIHO October 1952-December 1962, Box L-26, Kansas City NARA; Aubrey L. Haines, to Associate Superintendent, July 27, 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BNNBA; Alfred W. Schulmeyer and Paul L. Hedren, "Big Hole National Battlefield National Register Nomination," May 19, 1977, p. 7-1. Williams remembered that Clemow's frustration stemmed not only from the delays but also from Williams' successful attempt to cancel a gravel contract between Clemow and the Bureau of Public Roads, on the bench land: "I jumped in to get BPR to go elsewhere as the destruction to the proposed new headquarters was unthinkable.. . Clemow never forgave me." Jack R. Williams, "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument 1961-1963," 1991, Folder: 99, H1417, BHNBA.

²⁶ Frank J. Barry, Solicitor of the Department of the Interior, "Declaration of Taking," United States District Court, District of Montana, Butte Division, September 9, 1964; Jackson E. Price, Assistant Director, Specialized Services, to Acting Associate Solicitor, Parks and Recreation, June 27, 1966; Chief, Division of Land and Water Rights, to Regional Director, Midwest Region, June 19, 1964; W. D. Murray, District Judge, Final Judgement and Order Disbursing Fund, Civil No. 1184, United States District Court, Butte, Montana. All in Folder: 163, L1425, BHNBA.

²⁷ Bruce A. Risley to Honorable Mike Mansfield ("Mike"), May 20, 1964, Folder: 163, L1425, BHNBA; Jon James, interview by Ann Hubber and Ted Catton, October, 1997; Aubrey Haines, interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

²⁸ Expansion of the monument's artifact collection proceeded apace with plans for the new visitor center. In 1958, the Division of Interpretation attempted the purchase of "authentic Nez Perce items for the period . . . appropriate for Big Hole Battlefield" from Mrs. Joe Evans, Sacajawea Museum, Spalding, Idaho. Both Regional Historian John Hussey and Museum Curator Abel had assessed the items as of "major importance for an understanding of the culture of that tribe" and their purchase as therefore consistent with Park Service plans to use Big Hole Battlefield as a stage on which to tell the Nez Perce "saga." Ronald E. Lee encouraged immediate acquisition despite the absence of a museum prospectus and suggested creative funding opportunities through the Eastern National Park and Monument Association. Ultimately, the Nez Perce Tribal Committee acquired the entire collection, which was purchased by Nez Perce National Historical Park, Spalding, Idaho, in 1967. Big Hole National Battlefield did, however, benefit from the long-term loan of a cradleboard from the Evans collection. Chief, Division of Interpretation, to Superintendent, Whitman National Monument, December 3, 1958; Bennett T. Gale, Regional Chief of Interpretation, to The Director, December 8, 1958; Regional Historian Mattes to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, December 12, 1958; Ronald E. Lee, Chief, Division of Interpretation, to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, January 7, 1959. All at WASO. Jack R. Williams, Superintendent Nez Perce National Historical Park, to Acting Superintendent Big Hole National Battlefield, October 14, 1969; Regional Curator, Pacific Northwest Region, to Superintendent, Nez Perce National Historical Park, August 15, 1986. Both in Folder: 1, D62, BIHO collection, Intermountain System Support Office, Denver.

²⁹ Lewis, p. 146; Jerry A. Riddell, Chief Architect, WODC, to Regional Director, Midwest Region, February 28, 1964, Folder: 66, D3415, BHNBA; Anonymous, "Interpretive Prospectus for Big Hole National Battlefield," 1964, Folder: 12, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA, pp. 12-14; Aubrey Haines, interview by Aim Hubber, June 24, 1998.

³⁰ Robert R. Lovegren, Assistant Superintendent, Opr., to Superintendent, Yellowstone, August 27, 1968, File D3415, Box 5, A-418, RG 79, Denver NARA; Fred C. Fagergren, Regional Director, to Robert L. Burns, September 11, 1967, Folder: A82 15 BIHO, Box 3, 079-75A-048, RG 79, Denver NARA; Fagergren to Assistant to the Regional Director, Public Affairs, September 11, 1967, Folder: A8215 BIHO, Box 3, 079-75A-048, RG 79, Denver NARA; Otis Halfmoon, interview by Ted Catton, May 22, 1998; Robert Burns, interview by Ted Catton, July 22, 1995.

³¹ Jack R. Williams, interview by Ann Hubber, June 22, 1998.

³² Williams reported with pride on the native-rock that delineated the trail. In an effective illustration of changing management goals, in 1974 these rocks were identified as an inappropriate visual impact and were removed.

³³ Aubrey L. Haines, An Elusive Victory. The Battle of the Big Hole (West Glacier, Montana: Glacier Natural History Association, 1991), pp. ix-x; Jack R. Williams, "Big Hole Battlefield National Monument 1961-1963," 1991, Folder: 99, H1417, BHNBA.

³⁴ Aubrey L. Haines, "Historical Research Management Plan for Big Hole National Battlefield & Bibliography of the Nez Perce War, 1877," Division of History, Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, November 1967, Denver Service Center [DSC] reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, Columbia Cascade System Support Office [CCSO] library, pp. 14-15.

³⁵ Kermit Edmonds, interview by Ted Catton, February 26, 1998; Haines, An Elusive Victory, pp. ix-x.

³⁶ Haines interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

³⁷ In 1973, 35,149 people visited Big Hole National Battlefield. These visitors represented 49 states (all but Rhode Island) and 24 foreign countries. Montana residents composed the largest percentage (37%), followed by California (12%) and Idaho (11%). Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1974, "Visitor Statistics by State, 1974 compared to 1973," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA, n.p

³⁸ Clyde A. Maxey, "Interpretive Prospectus for Big Hole National Battlefield," October 16, 1964; Kermit Edmonds, interview by Ted Catton, February 26, 1998.

³⁹ Clyde A. Maxey, "Interpretive Prospectus for Big Hole National Battlefield," October 16, 1964; Kermit Edmonds, interview by Ted Catton, February 26, 1998. The American Indian Movement, led by Russell Means, Leonard Peltier, and Dennis Banks was intended as a "pan-Indian" effort that would transcend tribal allegiances while restoring traditional tribal culture and reclaiming tribal rights guaranteed by treaty. There is little evidence in the secondary literature that the Nez Perce tribe or tribal members assumed a prominent role in the movement. However, the Nez Perce war (in company with the massacre at Sand Creek [Colorado], and the Battle of Greasy Grass Creek [Custer's Last Stand, Montana]) did assume symbolic importance. See Russell Means, with Marvin J. Wolf, Where White Men Fear to Tread; The Autobiography of Russell Means (New York: St. Martins Press, 1975).

⁴⁰ In his on-site review of the interpretive program, Regional Chief of Interpretation and Visitor Services David J. Thompson, Jr. recommended removal of the steel grating surrounding the Soldier's Monument: "It takes away any dignity that might be surrounding the memorial." Interpretive Naturalist Charles M. McCurdy concurred, describing the grating as "bluntly ugly looking." On September 11, 1967 BIHO Management Assistant Elroy W. Bohlin supervised removal of the "cage." Thompson to Associate Regional Director, August 1, 1966 and McCurdy to Assistant Regional Director of Operations, September 6,1967, both in Folder: 1, Box 2, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA. Bohlin to Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, October 1,1967, Reports Monthly, A2615, BHNBA.

⁴¹ Unattributed quote in "Planning Comments, Big Hole National Monument," August 13, 1962, Folder: "Master Plans," D18, BHNBA; Linenthal, Sacred Ground, p. 129.

⁴² Lewis, Museum Curatorship in the National Park Service, 1904-1982, p. 164.

⁴³ Theodore Stern, American Anthropologist, Volume 65, Number 5 (October 1963) and Edgar L. Stewart, Ethnohistory, Volume 10, No. 3, (Summer 1963).

⁴⁴ Merrill J. Mattes, Regional Historian, and Russell A. Apple, Park Naturalist, to Regional Director Region II, January 7, 1960, Folder: 5, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA; Aubrey L. Haines, "Historical Research Management Plan for Big Hole National Battlefield & Bibliography of the Nez Perce War, 1877," Division of History, Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, November 1967, Denver Service Center [DSC] reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, Columbia Cascade System Support Office [CCSO] library; Folder: 148, K54, BHNBA, passim. Folder: 5, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA, passim.

⁴⁵ Aubrey L. Haines, "Historical Research Management Plan for Big Hole National Battlefield & Bibliography of the Nez Perce War, 1877," Division of History, Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, November 1967, Denver Service Center [DSC] reports on microfiche, 41/D-5, Columbia Cascade System Support Office [CCSO] library, pp. 14-15.

⁴⁶ Aubrey Haines, interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

⁴⁷ Park Service Administrative Manual, quoted in Freeman Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), p. 38.

⁴⁸ Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage , p. 37.

⁴⁹ Williams, "Master Plan for the Preservation and Use of Big Hole Battlefield National Monument, Mission 66 Edition," March 1962, Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA, p. 5;

⁵⁰ Maxey "Long Range Wildlife and Range Management Plan for Big Hole National Battlefield," n.d. (ca. June 1963), Folder: MPS, D18, BHNBA

⁵¹ Maxey, "Long Range Wildlife and Range Management Plan for Big Hole National Battlefield," n.d. (ca. June 1963), Folder: MPS, D18, BHNBA; Anonymous, "Interpretive Prospectus for Big Hole National Battlefield," 1964, Folder: 12, YELL BIHO Files, BIHO 3533, BHNBA, passim.

⁵² Maxey, "Long Range Wildlife and Range Management Plan for Big Hole National Battlefield," n.d. (ca. June 1963); A. L. Haines, Park Historian [YELL], to Superintendent [YELL], June 28, 1963; John M. Good, Chief Park Naturalist [YELL] to Superintendent [YELL], June 25, 1963. All in Folder: MPS, D18, BHNBA.

⁵³ Pat H. Miller, Operations Evaluation Team, "Operations Evaluation Report Big Hole National Battlefield, August 1972," October 3, 1972, file: A5427, Box 1, 764543, RG 79, NAD.

⁵⁴ Pat H. Miller, Operations Evaluation Team, "Operations Evaluation Report Big Hole National Battlefield, August 1972," October 3, 1972, file: A5427, Box 1, 764543, RG 79, NAD.

⁵⁵ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁵⁶ Haines to Edmonds, Folder: 121, K18, BHNBA.

⁵⁷ lnterpretive Planner, Division of Planning, Denver Service Center, to Chief, Interpretation, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, April 15, 1974, Folder: "BIHO Interpretive Prospectus," Box 5, 79-97-0015, RG 79, NAD.

⁵⁸ Anonymous, "Summary of Interpretive Program Constraints, Themes, Objectives, Intended Audience, and Expected Results," n.d. (ca. 1974), Folder: 128, K1817, BHNBA.

⁵⁹ "A Long Journey to Surrender," draft copy-edited typescript attached to Barry Mackintosh, Acting Chief Historian, to Nancy McCaslin, HFC, May 14, 1974, WASO. This naked sympathy stood in sharp contrast and counterbalance to the patriotic rhetoric that defined visitor response at Custer Battlefield. See, for example, Linenthal, Sacred Ground, pp. 129-171. Linenthal writes: "the Last Stand was portrayed as the pivotal battle between barbarism and civilization, and patriotic rhetoric celebrated the opening of the Anglo-American West as the most tangible outcome of the battle."

⁶⁰ Barry Mackintosh, Acting Chief Historian, to Nancy McCaslin, HFC, May 14, 1974 and Bruce Hopkins, Acting Chief, Division of Publications, to Mackintosh, May 22, 1974; Harry W. Pfanz, Acting Assistant Director, Park Historic Preservation, to Chief, Division of Publications, June 5, 1974. All at WASO.

⁶¹ Bruce Hopkins, Acting Chief, Division of Publications, to Mackintosh, May 22, 1974, WASO.

⁶² Wes Wolfe, Chief, Division of Interpretation, Rocky Mountain Region, to Schulmeyer, November 14, 1975, Folder: 130, K26, BHNBA.

⁶³ Schulmeyer to Sweringen, October 28, 1974, Folder: 130, D26, BHNBA; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁶⁴ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1975"; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Haines, interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

⁶⁵ Wolfe, Chief Division of Interpretation, Rocky Mountain Region, to Superintendents Big Hole National Monument [sic] and Yellowstone National Park, June 20, 1977, Folder: K1817, 079-84-0021, RG 79, NAD; Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁶⁶ Acquisition oft he Plains tribe headdress conflicted with the museum's intent to interpret Nez Perce culture, as distinct from an inaccurate and inappropriate focus on generic "Indian culture." In his 1984 interpretive prospectus, Schulmeyer complained that "the headress [sic] serves as a wedge into discussions of Nez Perce Indian Culture."

⁶⁷ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1975"; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁶⁸ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1975," "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁶⁹ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1975," "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1977," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, interview by Ted Catton, November 12, 1997.

⁷⁰ Schulmeyer, to Executive Secretary, Museum Association, n.d. (ca. May 1973), Folder 84, D62, BHNBA.

⁷¹ Interpretive Planner, Division of Planning, Denver Service Center, to Chief, Interpretation, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, April 15, 1974, Folder: "BIHO Interpretive Prospectus," Box 5, 79-97-0015, RG 79, NAD; Lynn H. Thompson, Regional Director, to Ron G. Holliday, State Historic Preservation Officer, August 19, 1976. The Montana State Historic Preservation Officer and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation concurred with the Park Service's evaluation of "no adverse effect," pursuant to Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. John D. McDermott, Director Office of Review and Compliance, to Thompson, September 13, 1976; Ron Holliday, State Historic Preservation Officer, to Thompson, August 27, 1976. Both in File H34, Box 7, 793076, RG 79, NAD.

⁷² "National Recreation Trail Designation," n.d., Folder: 179, L34, BHNBA.

⁷³ Schulmeyer to John Reed, Interpretive Specialist, Rocky Mountain Region, January 6, 1975; Reed to Bryan Jones, AA Arts, HFC, February 25, 1975. Both in Folder: 062, Box 8, 793075, RG79, NAD.

⁷⁴ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Wolfe to Production Manager, Division of Audiovisual Arts, Harpers Ferry Center, February 10, 1976, File K1817, Box 10,793077, NAD.

⁷⁵ Haines remembers that he blew up the trestle during his summer as management assistance, in large part because it posed a threat to public safety. Part of the trestle was on private land. Haines had not received authorization and was not licensed to work with explosives. He had, however, served with the Army Corps of Engineers in WWII and knew "a thing or two" about dynamite. The trestle "went down nicely." Aubrey Haines, interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

⁷⁶ Interpretive Planner, Division of Planning, Denver Service Center, to Chief, Interpretation, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, April 15, 1974, Folder: "BIHO Interpretive Prospectus," Box 5, 79-97-0015, RG 79, Denver NARA; Schulmeyer to Assistant Superintendent, Operations, April 22, 1975, File N-2215, Box N153, YNPA; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1973"; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1974," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁷⁷ Schulmeyer, "Statement of Management, Big Hole National Battlefield," November 14, 1975 (approved January 2,1977), File: A6435, Box A102, Yellowstone National Park Archives (hereafter YNPA).

⁷⁸ Schulmeyer to Assistant Superintendent, Operations, Yellowstone, December 26, 1973 and September 20, 1974. Both in Folder: "Master Plan," D18, BHNBA.

⁷⁹ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1975" and "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Lynn H. Thompson, Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, Feb. 11, 1975, Folder: 10, A42, BHNBA.

⁸⁰ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1974," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁸¹ Schulmeyer to Wayne Bryant, Chief, Operations Evaluation, September 19, 1975, Folder: 22, A6423, BHNBA; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1975," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁸² Schulmeyer to Wayne Bryant, Chief, Operations Evaluation, September 19, 1975, Folder: 22, A6423, BHNBA; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1975," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1976," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁸³ Glen T. Bean, Acting Regional Director, to Schulmeyer, March 17, 1977, File A8215, Box 3, 729802, RG 79, Denver NARA; Los Angeles Times, quoted in Linenthal, Sacred Ground, p. 145.

⁸⁴ Bean, paraphrased in Edward Parks, "Big Hole: Still a Gaping Wound to Nez Perce," Smithsonian Magazine, Folder: 223, A82, BHNBA

⁸⁵ The National Park Service entered into agreement with Nez Perce Tribal Members "for the purpose of securing Tribal Members to present a program and cultural demonstrations at the Centennial celebration at Big Hole National Battlefield." Al Schulmeyer remembers that the Nez Perce desired only that their expenses for the two-day journey be paid. Although tribal members did not actively seek a role in the ceremony, or a voice as to its content, they proved eager participants once Schulmeyer made the initial contact (Schulmeyer, telephone interview by Ann Hubber, October 21, 1998.

⁸⁶ "Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole Battlefield, 1977," Superintendents Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; handwritten note, Haines to Edmonds, n.d., Folder: 179, L34, BHNBA; Glen T. Bean for Lynn H. Thompson, Regional Director, to Kenneth L. Korte, Montana State Historical Society, July 1977, Folder: 179, L34, BHNBA.

⁸⁷ Edward Parks, "Big Hole: Still a Gaping Wound to Nez Perce," Smithsonian Magazine, Folder: 223, A82, BHNBA.

¹ "Operations Evaluations and Consultation, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 13-14, 1978," L6017, BHNBA.

² Alfred W. Schulmeyer, Statement of Management [sic], Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana, written November 14, 1975, approved May 8, 1979, Folder: D18, Box 3, 079-84-0021, RG 79, NAD.

³ Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1979," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁴ Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, to Chief Statistical Branch, Denver Service Center, September 7, 1977, Folder: 2, A26, BHNBA; Denver Service Center, Environmental Assessment Proposed Sewage System Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana, December 18, 1974, Folder: Sewage System, BIHO, Box 5, 079-97-0015, RG 79, NAD; Thomas, Dean & Hoskins, Inc. Engineering Consultants, "Operation and Maintenance Manual, Big Hole National Battlefield Sewage Treatment Facilities," 341/D7, Denver Service Center [DSC] reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, Columbia Cascade System Support Office [CCSO]; Alfred W. Schulmeyer, Statement of Management [sic], Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana, written November 14, 1975, approved May 8, 1979, Folder: D18, Box 3, 079-84-0021, RG 79, NAD.

⁵ Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Denver Service Center, Environmental Assessment Proposed Sewage System Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana, December 18, 1974, Folder: Sewage System, BIHO, Box 5, 079-97-0015, RG 79, NARA, Denver; Thomas, Dean & Hoskins, Inc. Engineering Consultants, "Operation and Maintenance Manual, Big Hole National Battlefield Sewage Treatment Facilities," 341/D7, Denver Service Center [DSC] reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, Columbia Cascade System Support Office [CCSO; Schulmeyer, Statement of Management [sic], Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana, written November 14, 1975, approved May 8, 1979, Folder: D18, Box 3, 079-84-0021, RG 79, NARA, Denver; Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁶ Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; "Operations Evaluations and Consultation, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 13-14, 1978," L6017, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, "Annual Objectives for FY 1981," K18, BHNBA.

⁷ "Operations Evaluations and Consultation, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 13-14, 1978," L6017, BHNBA; Aubrey Haines, interview by Ann Hubber, June 24, 1998.

⁸ "Operations Evaluations and Consultation, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 13-14, 1978," L6017, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1984," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

⁹ "Operations Evaluations and Consultation, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 13-14, 1978," L6017, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1982," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1984," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA. There is additional evidence that the new arrangement was an only modest improvement. In 1985, the Associate Regional Director, Planning and Resource Preservation, RMR, offered assistance in typing the next draft of Schulmeyer's "Resource Management Plan, Cultural Component," but regretted that his staff would be unable to undertake revision. Richard A. Strait to Schulmeyer, June 25, 1985, WASO.

¹⁰ Schulmeyer, "Cultural Resources Management Plan, Big Hole National Battlefield," July 25, 1984 (unapproved), Folder l14, H3015, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1984," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

¹¹ Special Assistant to the Director, "Federal Legislative Jurisdiction of Lands in Areas Administered by the National Park Service," May 10, 1973, Folder: W30, Box W-128, YNPA.

¹² This local hostility stemmed from opposition to the proposed West Big Hole Wilderness Area proposed by USFS and BLM officials. Schulmeyer reports that through the late 1970s the Big Hole Valley witnessed its own "Sagebrush Rebellion." Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1984," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

¹³ Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1984," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA; Schulmeyer, "Superintendent's Annual Report, 1984," Folder: Superintendents' Annual Reports, A2621, BHNBA.

¹⁴ Denver Service Center, Environmental Assessment Proposed Sewage System Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana, December 18, 1974, Folder: Sewage System, BIHO, Box 5, 079-97-0015, RG 79, NARA, Denver; Thomas, Dean & Hoskins, Inc. Engineering Consultants, "Operation and Maintenance Manual, Big Hole National Battlefield Sewage Treatment Facilities," 341/D7, Denver Service Center (hereafter DSC) reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, Columbia Cascades System Support Office (hereafter CCSO).

¹⁵ "Operations Evaluations and Consultation, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 13-14, 1978," L6017, BHNBA.

¹⁶ Jon G. James, comments on draft, September 1, 1998.

¹⁷ "Operations Evaluations and Consultation, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 13-14, 1978," L6017, BHNBA.

¹⁸ Susan A. Tenney, "Reasons for Excluding Nez Perce Monument from National Register Nomination for Big Hole National Battlefield," n.d. (ca. 1983), H30, BHNBA.

¹⁹ Schulmeyer, "Big Hole National Battlefield National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form," May 19, 1977 (approved 1978); Edwin C. Bearss, Chief Historian, to Chief of Registration [Carol] Shull, Interagency Resources Division, June 22, 1984; Acting Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, to Associate Director, Cultural Resources WASO, January 13, 1984. Both at WASO.

²⁰ Marcella Sherfy to Richard A. Strait, May 14, 1986, Folder: l14, H3015, BHNBA.

²¹ Superintendent to Associate Regional Director, May 30, 1986, Folder l14, H3015, BHNBA.

²² Otis Halfmoon, comments on draft.

²³ Public Law 91-190, January 1, 1970, 83 Stat., p. 852.

²⁴ Marcella Sherfy, Montana State Historic Preservation Officer, to Richard A. Strait, May 14, 1986, Folder l14, H3015, BHNBA.

²⁵ Schulmeyer, "Cultural Resources Management Plan, Big Hole National Battlefield," July 25, 1984 (unapproved), Folder l14, H3015, BHNBA.

²⁶ Schulmeyer, Environmental Assessment Willow Control, December 15, 1986, 34 l/D22, Denver Service Center [DSC] reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, CCSO.

²⁷ Schulmeyer, Environmental Assessment Willow Control, December 15, 1986, 34 1/D22, Denver Service Center [DSC] reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, CCSO.

²⁸ Schulmeyer, Environmental Assessment Willow Control, December 15, 1986, 34l/D22, DSC reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, CCSO.

²⁹ NPS, Environmental Assessment, Riverbank Erosion Repair Project, Big Hole National Battlefield. July 25, 1983; Lorraine Mintzmeyer, Regional Director Rocky Mountain Region, "Finding of No Significant Impact [FONSI], Riverbank Erosion Repair Project, Big Hole National Battlefield," August 8, 1983; Schulmeyer to Files, July 25, 1983. All in 341/D9, DSC reports on microfiche, 341/D-5, CCSO.

³⁰ Schulmeyer, "Cultural Resources Management Plan, Big Hole National Battlefield," July 25, 1984 (unapproved), Folder l14, H3015, BHNBA.

³¹ Schulmeyer, Cultural Resources Management Plan, Big Hole National Battlefield, July 25, 1984 (unapproved), Folder l14, H3015, BHNBA

³² Bowers to Manager, Harpers Ferry Center, November 14, 1984, Folder: H30, Box 20, 079-91-0006, RG79, NAD.

³³ Schulmeyer to Regional Director, RMR, February 4, 1986, Folder: A5427, Box 1, 079-92-0001, RG79, NAD.

¹ Al Schulmeyer, interview by Ted Catton, November 12, 1997.

² Harold P. Danz and Robert W. Reynolds, "Organizational Structure Analysis Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site and Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 23, A6427, BHNBA.

³ Harold P. Danz and Robert W. Reynolds, "Organizational Structure Analysis Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site and Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 23, A6427, BHNBA.

⁴ Harold P. Danz and Robert W. Reynolds, "Organizational Structure Analysis Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site and Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 23, A6427, BHNBA.

⁵ Harold P. Danz and Robert W. Reynolds, "Organizational Structure Analysis Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site and Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 23, A6427, BHNBA.

⁶ Harold P. Danz and Robert W. Reynolds, "Organizational Structure Analysis Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site and Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 23, A6427, BHNBA.

⁷ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, "Administrative Realignment Planned for Big Hole National Battlefield," July 28, 1987, K3415, administrative files, BHNB.

⁸ Jock Whitworth, interview with Ted Catton, April 30, 1998.

⁹ Ted Catton, Nez Perce National Historical Park Administrative History, prepared for USDI National Park Service, Seattle, Washington, by Historical Research Associates, Inc., Missoula, Montana, September 1996, p. 128.

¹⁰ Catton, Nez Perce National Historical Park Administrative History, p.130.

¹¹ Catton, Nez Perce National Historical Park Administrative History, p.130.

¹² Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region to Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, October 19, 1992, L58 Proposed Areas – New Additions Wallowa, Nez Perce National Historical Park (NPNHP) administrative files.

¹³ Catton, Nez Perce National Historical Park Administrative History, p.130.

¹⁴ Acting Superintendent to Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, no date, File K262l, BHNBA. Adding to the flux, Grant Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site Superintendent Eddie Lopez left in 1993 and was replaced by Tony Schetzle who had brief oversight of Big Hole before it was placed under the administration of Nez Perce National Historical Park in 1994. Hutchinson, Ranger Crystal Coffey-Avey, and Chief of Maintenance Lonnie Hergenrider all received special achievement awards for their efforts while in acting status. Superintendent's 1993 Annual Report, Big Hole National Battlefield, BIHO D14, DSC reports on microfiche, CCSO library, Seattle.

¹⁵ Nez Perce National Historical Park, Unit Organization Concept, no date, NPNHP library.

¹⁶ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1993, NEPE D14, DSC reports on microfiche, CCSO library, Seattle.

¹⁷ Unit Manager to Regional Director, October31, 1994, K2621, BHNBA.

¹⁸ Team Captain, Nez Perce GMP to Manager, Western Team, DSC, no date, D18 Planning Program, BHNBA.

¹⁹ Staff organization charts, February 1995, Nez Perce National Historical Park library.

²⁰ Memorandum, "Clarification of Relationship, Big Hole National Battlefield & Nez Perce National Historical Park, January 1996 (updated May 1996), Jon G. James administrative files copied on disk and provided to authors.

²¹ Jon G. James, interview by Ann Hubber, November 12, 1997.

²² Memorandum, "Clarification of Relationship, Big Hole National Battlefield & Nez Perce National Historical Park, January 1996 (updated May 1996), Jon G. James administrative files copied on disk and provided to authors.

²³ Jock Whitworth, interview by Ted Catton, April 30, 1998.

²⁴ Rocky Mountain Region, Housing Management Plan, Big Hole, 1992, pp. 7-9.

²⁵ Jon G. James, interview by Ted Catton, May 26, 1998.

²⁶ Jon G. James, interview by authors, September 1,1998.

²⁷ Total visits (data sheet excerpt), Folder 103, H22, BHNBA.

²⁸ Jock Whitworth interview.

²⁹ Kermit Edmunds, interview by Ted Catton, February 26, 1998.

³⁰ Jock Whitworth, Annual Statement for Interpretation, Big Hole National Battlefield FY 1991, K1 815, BHNB administrative files.

³¹ Jock Whitworth, Annual Statement for Interpretation, Big Hole National Battlefield FY 1991, K18 15, BHNB administrative files.

³² Jock Whitworth, Annual Statement for Interpretation, Big Hole National Battlefield FY 1991, K1815, BHNB administrative files.

³³ Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of Idaho, Visitor Services Project: Nez Perce National Historical Park, AdditionalAnalysis, Visitor Services Project Report 68, October 1995.

³⁴ Jock Whitworth interview; Kermit Edmunds interview.

³⁵ Jock Whitworth interview.

³⁶ Otis Halfmoon, interview by Ted Catton, May 22, 1998.

³⁷ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1990, Big Hole National Battlefield, BIHO D14, DSC reports on microfiche, CCSO library; USDI NPS, News Release, "Nez Perce Artist New Addition to Big Hole National Battlefield," December 16, 1989, K3415, BHNB administrative files; Jock Whitworth, "Annual Statement for Interpretation, Big Hole National Battlefield FY 1991," K1815, BHNB administrative files.

³⁸ Otis Halfmoon interview.

³⁹ Jock Whitworth interview.

⁴⁰ Jock Whitworth to Joseph and Soy Redthunder, April 21, 1990, Folder l34, K3015, BHNBA.

⁴¹ Otis Halfmoon interview.

⁴² "Nez Perce Memorial," Ravalli Republic, August 4, 1995, clipping in K3415, BHNB administrative files.

⁴³ Unit Manager Sue Buchel to Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, October 31, 1994, K2621, BHNB administrative files.

⁴⁴ "Nez Perce Memori a, ," Ravalli Republic, August 4, 1995, clipping in K3415, BHNB administrative files; Otis Halfmoon interview.

⁴⁵ Kermit Edmunds interview.

⁴⁶ Chief, I & RM, Big Hole, to Division of Interpretation, November 8, 1989, K2621, BHNB administrative files.

⁴⁷ Several examples of educational outreach are documented in K1815, BHNB administrative files.

⁴⁸ "Guest Historian to Visit Big Hole," USDI NPS news release, May 30, 1995, K3415, BHNB administrative files.

⁴⁹ "Big Hole Interpretive Program Schedule August 7 – August 24," pamphlet, K3415, BHNB administrative files.

⁵⁰ Jock Whitworth, Chief, I & RM, Big Hole, to Division of Interpretation, November 8, 1989, K2621, BHNB administrative files.

⁵¹ "Visit the Big Hole Valley in 1910," USDI NPS news release, K3415, BHNB administrative files; "Big Hole Valley – 1910," program, K18, BHNB administrative files.

⁵² Acting Superintendent to Regional Director, no date, K2621, BHNB administrative files.

⁵³ Jon G. James, interview with authors, September 1,1998.

⁵⁴ Jock Whitworth to Randy/Anita, July 4, 1990, BHNB chronological files.

⁵⁵ Jon G. James interview.

⁵⁶ Jon G. James to Chris Wheeler, Anne Tubiolo, and Marie Marek, January 21, 1998, Jon G. James administrative files provided to authors on disk.

⁵⁷ Sue Buchel to Hank Williams, Jr., August 24, 1995, BHNB chronological files.

⁵⁸ Big Hole National Battlefield Statement for Management, June 1989, DSC reports on microfiche, 341/DI E, CCSO library.

⁵⁹ Big Hole National Battlefield, Collection Management Plan, prepared by Rachel P. Maines and Laura Joss Griffin of Maines and Associates and Lisa Mibach of Mibach and Associates under the direction of Allen S. Bohnert, Regional Curator, Rocky Mountain Region, 1990, DSC reports on microfiche, 341/D-13, CCSO library.

⁶⁰ Harold P. Danz and Robert W. Reynolds, "Organizational Structural Analysis Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site and Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 23, A6427, BHNBA.

⁶¹ Big Hole National Battlefield, Collection Management Plan.

⁶² Big Hole National Battlefield, Collection Management Plan.

⁶³ Big Hole National Battlefield, Collection Management Plan.

⁶⁴ Ranger Activities Division Morning Report, November 24, 1992, folder labeled BIHO Theft and Break-ins, box labeled Curatorial, BHNB storage; Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole National Battlefield 1991 and 1992, DSC reports on microfiche, 341/D-14, CCSO library.

⁶⁵ Jock Whitworth to Hank Williams, Jr., January 4, 199 l, BHNB chronological files.

⁶⁶ National Park Service, Resources Management Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, March 1995, p. 19; Rocky Mountain Region, Archeological Project Report, October l, 1991, H22, BHNB administrative files; Douglas D. Scott, A Sharp Little Affair: The Archeology of the Big Hole Battlefield. Reprints in Anthropology, vol. 45. Lincoln, Nebraska: J&L Reprint Company, 1994.

⁶⁷ Superintendent's Annual Report, Big Hole National Battlefield 1991 and 1992, DSC reports on microfiche, 341/D-14, CCSO library; Otis Halfmoon interview. The remains were the subject of a separate report, "What Price Victory: Human Remains Uncovered at Big Hole National Battlefield, 1991," prepared by National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, DSC reports on microfiche, D-15, CCSO library. Whitworth described the reburial and placed the discovery in historical perspective in a news release. See "It Was Not Good to See Women and Children Lying Dead," no date, K3415, BHNB administrative files.

⁶⁸ Sue Buchel to Hank Williams, Jr., August 24, 1995, BHNB chronological files.

⁶⁹ Jon G. James, interview by authors, September l, 1998.

⁷⁰ Fire Management Plan, Big Hole National Battlefield, Wisdom, Montana, February 18, 1991, DSC reports on microfiche, D-20, CCSO library.

⁷¹ Jock Whitworth to Al Schulmeyer, no date, Folder 226, Y14, BHNBA.

⁷² Fire Management Plan, Big Hole National Battlefield.

⁷³ Susan Buchel to Jim Magee, Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, March 13, 1995, Y1415, BHNB administrative files.

⁷⁴ Jock Whitworth to Files, March 31, 1989, Y14, BHNB administrative files.

⁷⁵ Chief, I & RM to Files, March 31, 1989 and April 7, 1989, Y14, BHNB administrative files.

⁷⁶ Jock Whitworth to Tom Zimmerman, Office of Fire Management, September 26, 1991, and Joe Carvelho, Prescribed Burning Plan, May l, 1991, Y14, BHNB administrative files.

⁷⁷ Superintendent's 1993 Annual Report, Big Hole National Battlefield, DSC reports on microfiche, D-14, CCSO library.

⁷⁸ Susan Buchel to Rick Hartz, October 2, 1995, enclosing 1995 Weed Control Program, Big Hole National Battlefield, A44, BHNB administrative files.

⁷⁹ Susan Buchel to Rick Hartz, October 2, 1995, enclosing 1995 Weed Control Program, Big Hole National Battlefield, A44, BHNB administrative files.

⁸⁰ Susan Buchel to Rick Hartz, October 2, 1995, enclosing 1995 Weed Control Program, Big Hole National Battlefield, A44, BHNB administrative files.

⁸¹ Ted J. Doney, Montana Water Law Handbook (Helena: State Bar of Montana, 1981), pp. 6-7, 140.

⁸² Hillory A. Tolson to Regional Director, November 20, 1944, and Howard W. Baker to Superintendent of Yellowstone, November 25, 1944, File 660-05.7 Water Rights Big Hole, Box 2051, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA H.

⁸³ W. W. Wetzel, Forest Supervisor, to Yellowstone National Park, December 21, 1944, Folder 184, L54, BHNBA. Wetzel quoted the September 17, 1909 recommendation for an administrative site withdrawal by Assistant Ranger Arthur M. Keas, "Water is not needed for irrigation and none has been appropriated."

⁸⁴ Chief, Branch of Water Resources to Regional Director, July 10, 1962, Folder 184, L54, BHNBA. This letter references a January 3, 1945 memorandum.

⁸⁵ Notice of Appropriation of Water Right, no date, File 660-05.7, Box 2051, RG 79, NA II. Assistant Park Engineer A. L. Haines described the water supply as follows. "Reservoir. – A concrete structure 6' x 8' and 10' in depth (capacity approximately 3,590 gallons). This reservoir is in a very poor state of repair and cannot be filled above the half level due to leakage through cracks in the concrete bottom and walls. Also, mud filters into the reservoir to an extent that renders the water unusable at times, making it necessary that the structure be drained and cleaned. The reservoir is entirely inadequate as the daily lawn watering will drain it despite the inflow from the spring. Spring. – The diversion works consist of a concrete box 3' x 3' set in the head of a draw. The spring is steady, but not adequate to supply the present 3/4" pipe line without further development. Seepage around the spring box and along the course of the pipe line in the draw indicates that the water supply could be further developed. Some erosion of the sides of the draw interfere with the operation of the spring box during storms. A field examination of the site would be necessary to determine the area suitable for spring development. Name of Stream. – The intermittent stream adjacent to the pipe line has no local name and is dry during most of the summer season. It is not a drainage of particular prominance [sic]." Haines, memorandum, May 10,1948, File 660-05.7, Box 2051, CCF 1933-49, RG 79, NA H.

⁸⁶ Russell L. McKown, Acting Assistant Regional Director to Charles W. Lane, District Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, October 19, 1962, Folder 184, L54, BHNBA.

⁸⁷ Bruce J. Miller, Assistant Chief, Office of Land and Water Rights, SSC, to Superintendent of Yellowstone, October 14, 1966, Folder 185, L54, BHNBA.

⁸⁸ Doney, Montana Water Law Handbook, p. 9. The law followed the new Montana Constitution of 1972, which provides that "[a]ll existing rights to the use of any waters for any useful or beneficial purpose are hereby recognized and confirmed."

⁸⁹ Al Schulmeyer, Superintendent, Big Hole, to Assistant Superintendent, Yellowstone, November 28, 1973, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹⁰ Al Schulmeyer, Superintendent, Big Hole, to Assistant Superintendent, Yellowstone, November 28, 1973, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹¹ Al Schulmeyer to Assistant Superintendent, Yellowstone, November 28, 1973, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹² Notice of Appropriation of Water Right, undated, and Register to Commissioner, General Land Office, March 12, 1904, attached to Leigh W. Freeman to Paula Stinger, September 16, 1976, Folder 156, L1425, BHNBA.

⁹³ Al Schulmeyer, Superintendent, Big Hole, to Assistant Superintendent, Yellowstone, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹⁴ Schulmeyer, Superintendent, Big Hole, to Assistant Superintendent, Yellowstone, November 28, 1973, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹⁵ Al Schulmeyer, Superintendent, Big Hole, to Assistant Superintendent, Yellowstone, November 28, 1973, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹⁶ Superintendent to Associate Regional Director, June 21, 1978, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹⁷ A1 Schulmeyer to Lee Garrison, April 2, 1981, Folder 191, L54, BHNBA.

⁹⁸ Stanley W. Hulett to Senator Max Baucus, December 23, 1982, Folder 213, L7621, BHNBA.

⁹⁹ Lawrence M. Jakub to Lands, March 17, 1983, Folder 171, L1425, BHNBA.

¹⁰⁰ Schulmeyer, interview by Theodore Catton, April 16, 1998.

¹⁰¹ Warranty Deed, Book 204, Page 193, Folder 11, L54, Yell BIHO files, BHNBA.

¹⁰² Regional Director to David C. Moon (draft), June 20, 1983, L54 (1), BHNBA.

¹⁰³ Message Record, October 19, 1983, L 54 (1), BHNBA.

¹⁰⁴ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, and U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, "Environmental Assessment: Trail Creek Water Diversion, Beaverhead National Forest and Big Hole National Battlefield, Montana," June 1984, p. 2.

¹⁰⁵ Nez Perce Tribal Executive Committee, Resolution, January 1984, L54 (1), BHNB administrative files.

¹⁰⁶ D. Petrik to Al Schulmeyer, Superintendent, December 16, 1984, Folder 150, L1415, BHNBA.

¹⁰⁷ Superintendent, Big Hole, to Chief, Division of Lands, Rocky Mountain Region, December31, 1985, L54 (1), BHNB administrative files.

¹⁰⁸ Gwendolyn B. Carter, Water Resources Coordinator, to Ron Batchelor, Soil Conservation Service, September 3, 1986, and Superintendent, Big Hole, to Chief, Division of Lands, Rocky Mountain Region, August 4, 1986, L54 (1), BHNB administrative files.

¹⁰⁹ Al Schulmeyer, interview by Theodore Catton, November 12, 1997.

¹¹⁰ Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region, "Briefing Statement, Big Hole National Battlefield, Reactivation of the Trail Creek Irrigation Ditch," February 1988, Folder 212, L76 17, BHNBA.

¹¹¹ Superintendent, Big Hole National Battlefield, to Deputy Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, October 12, 1986, Folder 187, L54, BHNBA.

¹¹² Alfred W. Schulmeyer, Affidavit, July 22, 1987, Folder 187, L54, BHNBA.

¹¹³ Richard K. Aldrich to Gale A. Norton, October 17, 1986, Folder 187, L54, BHNBA.

¹¹⁴ Alfred W. Schulmeyer to Dick Young, October 22, 1986, Folder 187, L54, BHNBA.

¹¹⁵ [Alfred M. Schulmeyer], "Chronology Related to Lrrigation Ditch No. 3, Big Hole National Battlefield," Folder 157, L54, BHNBA.

¹¹⁶ National Park Service, Big Hole National Battlefield Statement for Management, November 1989, pp. 5-6.

¹¹⁷ Chuck Burton to Monte Clemow, July 16, 1989, Burton to Mike McWright, July 20, 1989, Memorandum of Agreement, no date, Folder D08, L54, BHNB administrative files.

¹¹⁸ National Park Service, Big Hole National Battlefield Statem ent for Management, November 1989, pp. 5-6.

¹¹⁹ Chuck Pettee, telephone interview by Ted Catton, April 16, 1998.

¹²⁰ For a general announcement of increased emphasis on cooperation with park neighbors, see Director to Directorate, Field Directorate, WASO Division Chiefs, and Park Superintendents, February 5, 1990, D18, Golden Spike National Historic Site, Promontory, Utah, administrative files.

¹²¹ Alfred W. Schulmeyer, Superintendent to Chief Historian, June 14, 1987, Folder 9, A38 Public Relations, BHNBA.

¹²² Jock Whitworth, Unit Manager, to Superintendent, Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site, November 22, 1991, L14 Acquisition of Land, BHNB administrative files.

¹²³ Mark Clemow Ranches, Inc., "Restrictive Covenants," June 17, 1993, L14 Acquisition of Land, BHNB administrative files.

¹²⁴ Rick L. Wagner to Mark Clemow, Jr., November 30, 1994, L14 Acquisition of Land, BHNB administrative files.

¹²⁵ Rick Wagner, Chief, Land Resources Program Center, to Area Manager, Bureau of Land Management, Jon G. James administrative files copied on disk and provided to authors.

¹²⁶ Jon G. James, interview with authors, September l, 1998.

¹²⁷ Interagency Agreement between Beaverhead National Forest, National Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, and Big Hole National Battlefield, National Park Service, Department of the Interior (various drafts), Cooperative Agreements, Federal, State, and Local, Folder 11, BHNBA; Acting Superintendent, Big Hole to Associate Regional Director, January 23, 1990, Memorandum of Agreement, Interagency – Beaverhead National Forest, Folder 12, A44, BHNBA.

¹²⁸ Superintendent, Nez Perce National Historical Park, to Regional Director, February 5,1987, NPNHP chronological files. Superintendent Roy Weaver suggested that Joseph and Soy Redthunder could provide the desired input from the Joseph Band, failing to remind the Forest Service to maintain relations with the Colville Business Council. Subsequently, the Colville Business Council criticized the Redthunders and the Forest Service for this informal arrangement. The Chief Joseph Band of Nez Perce complained that it lacked proper representation in the management of the trail. (Catton, Nez Perce National Historical Park Administrative History, 67n.)

¹²⁹ Big Hole National Battlefield, Statement for Management, 1989, DSC reports on microfiche, 341 D1E, CCSO library.

¹³⁰ Interagency cooperation also encompassed the Lewis and Clark Historic Trail and the proposed Continental Divide Trail. An undated draft interagency agreement stated: "Each of the parties have obligations and direct responsibilities for the work and reports related to the trails in the local areas, the parties also have responsibilities to report and monitor developments on a regional and national level as well." See Cooperative Agreements, Federal, State, and local, Folder 11, A44, BHNBA.

¹³¹ Associate Director to Field Directorates, June 2, 1995, Wildland Fire Management, Y14, BHNB administrative files. Several years prior to NPS involvement in the interagency fire management agreement, the Forest Service had developed an interagency fire management agreement with the Bureau of Land Management and the Bureau of Reclamation for southwestern Montana.

¹³² 1994 Dillon Interagency Dispatch Center Operating Plan, Memorandum of Agreement, A44, BHNB administrative files.

¹³³ Draft Cooperative Agreement between National Park Service Rocky Mountain Region and State of Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Memorandum of Agreement, Interagency – Beaverhead NF, Folder 12, A44, BHNBA.

¹³⁴ Anthony J. Schetzsle, Superintendent, Grant-Kohrs Ranch to Superintendents, BICA, GLAC, LIBI, & YELL; Unit Manager, BIHO, September 18, 1994, A44, Memoranda of Agreement, Montana Department of State L.ands, BHNB administrative files.

¹³⁵ Jock Whitworth to Gail Jones, no date (1989), Folder 33, A82, BHNBA.

¹³⁶ Beaverhead County Commission, "Beaverhead County Comprehensive Plan," revised 1990, Memorandum of Agreement, A44, Folder 13, BHNBA.

¹³⁷ Department of the Interior, National Park Service, General Management Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park and Big Hole National Battlefield (September 1997), pp. 68-75.

¹³⁸ Memorandum of Agreement between Big Hole National Battlefield and Nez Perce Tribal Members, Folder 33, A82, BHNBA.

¹³⁹ Regional Director to Superintendents, Rocky Mountain Region, January 2, 1991, H22, Golden Spike National Historic Site, Promontory, Utah, administrative files.

¹⁴⁰ Statement of Work for a purchase order by the Nez Perce National Historical Park to the Nez Perce Tribe, 1994, File: NAGPRA, BHNB administrative files.

¹⁴¹ Jock Whitworth interview.

¹⁴² Superintendent to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, Superintendent, Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site, and Associate Regional Director, Rocky Mountain Region, September 1,1993, Public Relations – Nez Perce Tribe, A38 15, Nez Perce National Historical Park, administrative files.

¹⁴³ Jon G. James to Rudy Shaballa, July 28, 1997, James to Angela Broncheau, July 28, 1997, and James to Mike Penney, August 11, 1997, Jon G. James administrative files provided to authors on disk.

¹⁴⁴ United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, General Management Plan, Nez Perce National Historical Park and Big Hole National Battlefield (September 1997), p. v.