Climate and Water Monitoring at Guadalupe Mountains National Park: Water Year 2024
Susan Singley, Kara Raymond, Tani Hubbard
Please cite this publication as:
Singley, S., K. Raymond, and T. Hubbard. 2026. Climate and Water Monitoring at Guadalupe Mountains National Park: Water Year 2024. Science Report NPS/SR—2026/483. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. https://doi.org/10.36967/2318803
Abstract
The Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network monitors climate, groundwater, and five springs each year at Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Texas. We report on climate and water resources together because surface water conditions are closely related to climate conditions. Climate data, including temperature, precipitation, and reconnaissance drought index, from three weather stations are retrieved from The Climate Analyzer (climateanalyzer.org). We use automated methods to monitor groundwater levels in three wells. We assess the condition of each spring, measure spring discharge and wetted extent (area that contained water), collect core water quality and water chemistry data, note the wetland plants and invasive plants and animals present, and sample for environmental DNA (eDNA) to inventory springs for rare species, invasive species, and pathogens. Each spring is somewhat unique, and Texas has not adopted water quality standards that apply across the diversity of springs in the state. Therefore, we continue to collect water quality data at the springs to form a baseline reference of natural variance. In WY2024, there were heavy winter rains, but there was less rainfall than average the rest of the year. The drought index indicated the park was drier than average for the second year in a row. Overall, high and low temperatures were above average, and there were more extremely hot days and fewer extremely cold days than average. The groundwater level at Lemonade Well was slightly lower than in other years. PX well groundwater levels have been decreasing since 2010, and the well may have been dry in WY2024 but appears to be filling with sediment, which may affect sensor measurements. Manual measurements in Signal Peak Well indicate steep decreases in water level. In WY2024, wetted areas of the spring sites were within prior ranges. Wetland plant species and invasive plant species were similar to prior years, but we detected the invasive rabbitsfoot grass for the first time in three of the springs: Bone Spring, Guadalupe Spring, and Upper Pine Spring. None of our eDNA target species were detected at any spring.
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Overview
Together, climate and hydrology shape ecosystems and the services they provide, particularly in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Understanding changes in climate, groundwater, and surface water is key to assessing the condition of park natural resources—and often, cultural resources.
At Guadalupe Mountains National Park (Figure 1), Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network scientists study how ecosystems may be changing by taking measurements of key resources, or “vital signs,” year after year—much as a doctor keeps track of a patient’s vital signs. This long-term ecological monitoring provides early warning of potential resource problems, allowing managers to mitigate them before they become worse. At Guadalupe Mountains National Park, we monitor climate, groundwater and springs, among other vital signs. Surface water and groundwater conditions are closely related to climate conditions. Because they are better understood together, we report on climate in conjunction with water resources. Reporting is by water year (WY), which begins in October of the previous calendar year and goes through September of the water year (e.g., WY2024 runs from October 2023 through September 2024). In this report, we present the results of climate and water monitoring at Guadalupe Mountains National Park in WY2024.
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Climate and Weather
There is often confusion over the terms “weather” and “climate.” In short, weather describes short-term meteorological conditions (e.g., it’s currently raining or snowing, it’s a hot or frigid day), and climate reflects patterns of weather at a given place over longer periods of time (seasons to years). Climate is the primary driver of ecological processes on Earth. Climate and weather information provide context for understanding the status or condition of other park resources.
Methods
We report on three Remote Automated Weather Stations (RAWS) at Guadalupe Mountains National Park (Figure 1). Dog Canyon (#DGCT2) at an elevation of 6,262 ft (1,909 m) has been operational since 2010, Pinery Texas (#PSGT2) at an elevation of 5,381 ft (1,640 m) has been operational since 2001, and PX Well (#PXWT2), at an elevation of 3,873 ft (1,181 m) has been operational since 2010. The long-term averages used for comparison in this report are based on the year the station was established through 2020. These stations provide reliable climate datasets for analyses in this climate and water report. Data from these stations are accessible through The Climate Analyzer.
Results
Precipitation and Air Temperature–Dog Canyon (RAWS)
Highlights: There were heavy winter and early monsoon rains, but the rest of the year was drier than average. There were more extremely hot days and fewer extremely cold days than average.
Annual precipitation at the Dog Canyon station in WY2024 was 13.31″ (33.81 cm; Figure 2), 4.76″ (12.09 cm) less than the long-term annual average. Precipitation totals in October, December, March, May, August, and September were substantially below the long-term averages by 0.51–2.83″ (1.30–7.19 cm), with the largest precipitation deficit in September. November and April precipitation totals were similar to average, and January, February, June, and July received 0.46–1.16″ (1.17–2.95 cm) more rainfall than average. January and February were over two and over three times as wet as their averages, respectively. An extreme daily rainfall event (≥1.00″; 2.54 cm) occurred on 1 day, 3 less than the average annual frequency of 4.2 days. The sole extreme rainfall event occurred on 02 September 2024 (1.19″; 3.02 cm). The mean annual maximum temperature at Dog Canyon station in WY2024 was 69.5°F (20.8°C), 1.0°F (0.6°C) above the long-term average. The mean annual minimum temperature in WY2024 was 47.8°F (8.8°C), 0.6°F (0.3°C) above average. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in WY2024 differed by as much as 3.7°F (2.0°C) relative to the long-term monthly averages. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures were both warmer than average in every month except March, April, and July. Extremely hot temperatures (≥89.0°F; 31.7°C) occurred on 33 days in WY2024, 50% more than the average frequency of 21.6 days. Extremely cold temperatures (≤24.0°F; −4.4°C) occurred on 15 days, approximately a third less than the average frequency of 21.6 days.
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Precipitation and Air Temperature–Pinery Texas (RAWS)
Highlights: There was less annual precipitation than usual, and September was much drier than average. High and low temperatures were higher than average in most months, and extremely hot days significantly increased.
Annual precipitation at the Pinery Texas station in WY2024 was 10.04″ (25.50 cm), 6.70″ (17.02 cm) less than the long-term annual average. Monthly precipitation totals in January, February, and June (Figure 3) were slightly above the averages, by 0.08–0.30″ (0.20–0.76 cm). Precipitation was below average in all other months, and May was completely dry. The largest precipitation deficit was in September, which received 2.37″ (6.02 cm) less than average. The other months received 0.19–0.87″ (0.48–2.21 cm) less than average. An extreme daily rainfall event (≥1.00″; 2.54 cm) occurred on 1 day, much less than the average annual frequency of 3.6 days. The single extreme rainfall event occurred on 31 August 2024 (1.75″; 4.45 cm). The mean annual maximum temperature at Pinery Texas station in WY2024 was 72.1°F (22.3°C), 0.8°F (0.4°C) above the long-term average. The mean annual minimum temperature in WY2024 was 53.3°F (11.8°C), 1.2°F (0.7°C) above average. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures (Figure 3) in WY2024 differed by as much as 4.3°F (2.4°C) relative to the averages. Mean monthly maximum temperatures were above average except in November, January, March, and May. Mean monthly minimum temperatures were above average in every month except January. Extremely hot temperatures (≥92.0°F; 33.3°C) occurred on 39 days in WY2024, 17 more than the average frequency of 21.5 days. Extremely cold temperatures (≤27.0°F; −2.8°C) occurred on 14 days, 6 less than the average frequency of 20.5 days.
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Precipitation and Air Temperature–PX Well (RAWS)
Highlights: Conditions were drier than average for nine months of the year, especially in September. Most months experienced above average high and low temperatures, and there were more extremely hot days.
Annual precipitation at the PX Well station in WY2024 was 3.70″ (9.4 cm), 7.47″ (19.0 cm) less than the long-term annual average. Monthly precipitation totals (Figure 4) in November, January, and February were above average by 0.05–0.17″ (0.13–0.43 cm). Precipitation totals in the other nine months were less than the long-term averages. March and May were completely dry, and April received minimal rainfall. The largest precipitation deficit was in September, which received 1.69″ (4.3 cm) less than average. Deficits during the other months were 0.23–0.79″ (0.58–2.01 cm). No extreme daily rainfall events (≥1.00″; 2.54 cm) occurred, compared to the long-term average annual frequency of 1.3 days. The mean annual maximum temperature at PX Well station in WY2024 was 80.8°F (27.1°C), 0.9°F (0.5°C) above the long-term average. The mean annual minimum temperature in WY2024 was 55.8°F (13.2°C), 1.3°F (0.7°C) above average. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures (Figure 4) differed as much as 4.2°F (2.4°C) from the averages. Mean monthly maximum temperatures were warmer than average in every month except November, January, March, and April. Mean monthly minimum temperatures were warmer than average in every month except April and July. Extremely hot temperatures (≥102.0°F; 38.9°C) occurred on 30 days in WY2024, approximately 50% more than the average frequency of 19 days. Extremely cold temperatures (≤29.0°F; −1.7°C) occurred on 16 days, 6 less than the average frequency of 22.4 days.
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Drought
Highlight: The park was drier than average for the second year in a row.
Reconnaissance drought index (Tsakiris and Vangelis 2005) provides a measure of drought severity and extent relative to the long-term climate. It is based on the ratio of average precipitation to average potential evapotranspiration (the amount of water loss that would occur from evaporation and plant transpiration if the water supply was unlimited) over short periods of time (seasons to years). The reconnaissance drought indices for Guadalupe Mountains National Park indicate that WY2024 was drier than the long-term average at all three stations from the perspective of both precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (Figures 5–7).
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Groundwater
Groundwater is one of the most critical natural resources of the American Southwest, providing drinking water, irrigating crops, and sustaining rivers, streams, and springs throughout the region.
Methods
Groundwater is monitored at Guadalupe Mountains National Park in three wells: Lemonade, PX, and Signal Peak wells (Figure 1). We have monitored the wells using automated methods since WY2010.
Results
Highlights: The groundwater level at Lemonade Well was slightly lower than in other years. PX Well groundwater levels have been decreasing since 2010, and the well may have been dry in WY2024. Manual measurements show steep decreases and greater fluctuations than normal in Signal Peak Well.
Groundwater monitoring results for WY2024 are summarized in Table 1. Mean depth to water at Lemonade Well in WY2024 was 29.41 feet below ground surface (ft bgs; 8.96 m bgs), lower than the previous year by 0.32 ft bgs (0.10 m bgs). The groundwater level spiked in May for two weeks, reaching 10.61 ft bgs (3.23 m bgs) before lowering to previous levels (Figure 8). This spike may have been due to leaking pipes, which occurred in 2011 and 2012. Earlier in the monitoring record, the water level at Lemonade Well was also affected by nearby groundwater pumping, causing temporary water level decreases. Outside those periods, the water level has been relatively stable and shallow. The groundwater level in PX Well has been gradually declining since monitoring began in 2010 and was likely dry throughout WY2024 for the second consecutive year (Figure 9). The well depth was measured by NPS in 2016 at 285.00 ft bgs (86.87 m bgs). However, site visits in 2020, 2021, and 2022 found mud and gypsum sand on the sounder or deployed sensor. This may indicate that the well has been filling in with sediment, effectively decreasing the well depth. The well bottom is currently estimated to be at approximately 280.50 ft bgs (85.50 m bgs). Automated sensor data for Signal Peak Well are not available for WY2024 because of equipment failure. The depth to water was manually measured in March 2024 at 1,153.46 ft bgs (351.57 m bgs). This measurement and one collected in September 2023 (1,161.16 ft bgs, 353.92 m bgs), indicate steeper decreases and greater fluctuations in water level than previously observed in the monitoring record (Figure 10). Prior to WY2023, the groundwater level in Signal Peak Well was gradually declining at approximately 1 ft (0.3 m) per year. Additional monitoring is needed to understand this rapid change.
| Name | State Well Number | Wellhead Elevation (ft amsl) |
Mean Depth to Water (ft bgs) |
Mean Water Level Elevation (ft amsl) |
Elevation Change from WY 2023 (± ft) |
Elevation Change (± ft) from Earliest Recorded
Water Level (year) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lemonade Well | 4808904 | 3,635.00 | 29.41 | 3,605.59 | −0.32 | −3.08 (2010) |
| PX Well | 4701201 | 3,867.00 | Dry | Dry | N/A | N/A |
| Signal Peak Well | 4710201 | 4,799.00 | 1,153.46 A | 3,645.54 A | −10.67 B | −23.56 (1978) |
A Single manual measurement for Signal Peak in WY2024.
B Average for WY2023 at Signal Peak was for October 2022–January 2023 due to missing data.
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Springs
Background
Springs, seeps, and tinajas (discrete pools in a rock basin or impoundments in bedrock) are small, relatively rare biodiversity hotspots in arid lands. They are the primary connection between groundwater and surface water and are important water sources for plants and animals. For springs, the most important questions we ask are about persistence (How long was there water in the spring?) and water quantity (How much water was in the spring?). WY2024 springs sampling at Guadalupe Mountains National Park occurred between 03 March and 18 March 2024. Water persistence is monitored continuously throughout the water year, but in this report, we only present WY2024 persistence data up to the sampling visit date for each spring.
Methods
Chihuahuan Desert Network springs monitoring is organized into the four modules described below (see McIntyre et al. 2018 for additional details) and eDNA inventories. All data have undergone certification processes to ensure they have been verified and validated for accuracy, are complete, and are fully documented. Data used in this report are available to park staff on the NPS DataStore and can be provided upon request.
Site Characterization
This module provides context for interpreting change in the other modules. We record GPS locations, draw a site diagram, and describe the spring type (e.g., helocrene, limnocrene, rheocrene, or tinaja) and its associated vegetation in this module. Helocrene springs emerge as low-gradient wetlands, limnocrene springs emerge as pools, and rheocrene springs emerge as flowing streams. This module is completed once every five years or after significant events.
Site Condition
We estimate the level of natural and anthropogenic disturbances and the level of stress on vegetation and soils at the spring on a scale of 1–4, where 1 = undisturbed, 2 = slightly disturbed, 3 = moderately disturbed, and 4 = highly disturbed. Types of natural disturbances can include flooding, drying, fire, wildlife impacts, windthrow of trees and shrubs, beaver activity, and insect infestations. Anthropogenic disturbances can include roads, off-highway vehicle trails, hiking trails, livestock and feral-animal impacts, removal of invasive non-native plants, flow modification, and other evidence of human use of the spring site. We take repeat photographs from the same location and perspective to show the spring and its landscape context. We note the presence of certain obligate wetland plant species (plant species that almost always occur only in wetlands), facultative wetland plant species (plant species that usually occur in wetlands, but also occur in other habitats), and invasive non-native crayfish and American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). We also record the density of invasive non-native plants using a qualitative scale (1–5 plants, scattered patches, evenly distributed patches, or a matrix). We complete the site condition module during each springs monitoring visit.
Water Quantity
We measure the persistence of surface water, amount of spring discharge, and wetted extent (area that contained water). To estimate persistence, we analyze the variance of temperature measurements taken by two logging thermometers placed at or near the orifice (spring opening). Because water mediates variation in diurnal temperatures, data from a submerged sensor will show less daily variation than data from an exposed, open-air sensor; this tells us when the spring was wet or dry. Surface discharge is measured with a timed sample of water volume. Wetted extent is a systematic measurement of the physical length (up to 100 m), width, and depth of surface water. It is assessed using a technique for either standing water (e.g., limnocrene and helocrene springs) or flowing water (e.g., rheocrene springs). We complete discharge and wetted extent measurements during each visit when possible. Water persistence measurements are continuous throughout the year.
Water Quality
We measure core water quality and water chemistry parameters. Core water quality parameters include water temperature, pH, specific conductivity (a measure of dissolved compounds and contaminants), dissolved oxygen (how much oxygen is present in the water), and total dissolved solids (an indicator of potentially undesirable compounds). Discrete measurements of these parameters are collected with a multiparameter meter. If the meter fails calibration checks, we do not present data. Water chemistry is assessed by collecting surface water samples and estimating the concentration of major ions with a photometer in the field. These parameters are collected at one or more sampling locations within a spring. Data are presented only for the primary sampling location within each spring. Each perennial spring is somewhat unique, and Texas has not adopted water quality standards that would apply across the diversity of springs described here. Ongoing, long-term data collection at each spring will improve our understanding of the natural range in water quality and water chemistry parameters for a given site. We complete the water quality module during each visit when possible.
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
We inventory rare species, invasive species, and pathogens in perennial springs using environmental DNA (eDNA) techniques. In 2023 and 2024, four or more water samples (250 mL/sample) were collected and filtered (0.45 µm) from each spring and then preserved in ethanol prior to DNA extraction and analysis by the Goldberg Lab at Washington State University. Our target organisms for the inventory include American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), ranavirus (Iridoviridae), barred tiger salamander (Ambystoma mavortium), red spotted toad (Bufo punctatus), Rio Grande leopard frog (Rana berlandieri), and Woodhouse’s toad (Anaxyrus woodhousii).
Results
Bone Spring
Highlights: The spring contained water, but we do not have persistence data for WY2024 or WY2023. The discharge and wetted area were similar to previous years. One new invasive plant species was observed: rabbitsfoot grass.
Bone Spring (Figures 11 and 12) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels) located in Bone Canyon in the Guadalupe Mountains. It emerges in a boulder-strewn wash below the base of the western escarpment of the Guadalupe Mountains. The spring initially forms stagnant pools, but flow increases after about 15 m and forms a flowing stream interspersed with pools for approximately 200 m. The WY2024 visit occurred on 14 March 2024, and the spring contained water.
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Site Condition
In WY2024, we rated Bone Spring slightly disturbed by feral animals because of a Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) carcass observed near the springbrook (rated undisturbed to moderately disturbed in the past). Tracks and scat indicate that wildlife has been using the spring site. No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Bone Spring in WY2024.
As in past years, we did not observe invasive non-native crayfish or American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) at Bone Spring in WY2024. We observed three species of invasive non-native plants at the spring: 1–5 horehound plants (Marrubium vulgare, 1–5 plants observed in 2018), 1–5 annual rabbitsfoot grass plants (Polypogon monspeliensis, not previously observed), and tamarisk (Tamarix sp., 1–5 plants were found 2018–2021; density data are missing for 2024).
We recorded seven obligate/facultative wetland plants: cat-tail (Typhaceae, a plant observed in 2018–2022); cottonwood (Populus sp., a tree observed in 2018–2022); horsetail (Equisetum sp., a forb observed in 2018–2022); maidenhair fern (Adiantum sp., a fern observed in 2018–2022); mule-fat (Baccharis salicifolia, a shrub observed in 2018–2022); a member of the rush family (Juncaceae, observed in 2021–2022); and tamarisk (Tamarix sp., a tree/shrub observed in 2018–2021).
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
In WY2024, 10 water samples were collected from Bone Spring. None of our target organisms were detected. In WY2023, the spring was not visited, and no samples were collected for eDNA analysis.
Water Quantity
Temperature sensor data are missing because the site was not visited in the prior year to deploy a sensor, so there is no estimate of persistence for WY2024 (Figure 13). In prior water years, the spring was wetted (contained water) 80.5–100% of the days measured across entire years.
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Discharge was estimated at 7.7 ± 0.6 L/min (2.0 ± 0.2 gal/min), which was within the range of 4.5–8.7 L/min measured in WY2018–WY2022 (Table 2). Wetted extent was evaluated using a method for flowing water. Overall, the wetted extent of Bone Spring was comparable with prior years, although average width and depth were on the lower end of their prior ranges. The total springbrook length was estimated to be 100–200 m (328–656 ft), consistent with the past range of a measured 100 m (328 ft) to an estimated 200–500 m (656–1,640 ft). In WY2024, width and depth in the first 100 m of the springbrook averaged 105.3 cm (41.5 in) and 5.5 cm (2.2 in), respectively (Table 3).
| Sampling Location | WY2024 Mean (Range of Prior Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| 002 | 7.7 ± 0.6 (4.5–8.7) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| Measurement | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values/Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| Width (cm) | 105.3 ± 72.1 (104.3–150.6) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| Depth (cm) | 5.5 ± 1.9 (5.3–12.7) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| Length (m) | 100.0 (100.0) | 2018–2022 (4) |
Water Quality
Core water quality (Table 4) and water chemistry (Table 5) data were collected at the primary sampling location. In WY2024, the values for dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductivity, water temperature, total dissolved solids, alkalinity, chloride and potassium were all within the ranges recorded in prior years. Calcium and sulphate levels were lower and the level of magnesium was much higher than in previous years.
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 5.06 (4.69–9.05) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | pH | 7.85 (7.56–8.15) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | Specific conductivity (µS/cm) | 1,114 (1,063–1,163) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | Temperature (°C) | 11.9 (6.2–14.6) | 2018–2022 (6) |
| 001 | Total dissolved solids (mg/L) | 723.9 (689.0–756.0) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Alkalinity (CaCO3) | 220 (205–250) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | Calcium (Ca) | 54 (70–120) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | Chloride (Cl) | 15 (8–19) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | Magnesium (Mg) | 150 (40–95) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | Potassium (K) | 1.2 (0.8–1.4) | 2018–2022 (4) |
| 001 | Sulphate (SO4) | 180 (185–380) | 2018–2022 (4) |
Dog Canyon Spring
Highlights: The spring was dry in the fall and then wetted up to the WY2024 visit in March. The wetted area was similar to prior years.
Dog Canyon Spring (Figures 14 and 15) is a limnocrene spring (a spring that emerges as one or more lentic pools). The spring emerges from a hillslope to form a 4 × 3 m pool at the edge of a dry wash. The pool is between 0.5 and 1.0 m deep and is bounded on three sides by rock walls. The northwest edge (facing the drainage) has a flat shore easily accessible by wildlife. The WY2024 visit occurred on 03 March 2024, and the spring contained water.
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Site Condition
In WY2024, we rated Dog Canyon Spring slightly disturbed by fire, with charred stumps (rated undisturbed in the past); and moderately disturbed by flow modification related to the human-made rock enclosure that surrounds the pool on three sides (rated undisturbed to highly disturbed in the past). Tracks, scat, and animal trails indicate wildlife have been using the site. No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Dog Canyon Spring in WY2024.
As in past years, we did not observe invasive non-native crayfish or American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) at Dog Canyon Spring in WY2024. We observed one invasive non-native plant species at the spring: 1–5 common mullein plants (Verbascum thapsus, 1–5 plants to scattered patches observed in 2017–2023). We did not observe any obligate/facultative wetland plants in WY2024, similar to prior years.
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
In WY2024, four water samples were collected from Dog Canyon Spring. Similar to WY2023, none of our target organisms were detected.
Water Quantity
Sensors are deployed and data are downloaded during our annual visit; the dates of these visits are indicated by black diamonds in the persistence graph (Figure 16). The temperature sensor indicated that Dog Canyon Spring was wetted (contained water) for 111 of 155 days (71.6%) measured in WY2024 up to the visit. In prior water years, the spring was wetted 57.8–100% of the days measured across entire years.
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As in past years, there was no measurable discharge from the pool in WY2024. Wetted extent was evaluated using a method for standing water. The wetted extent of Dog Canyon Spring was comparable to prior years in length and depth, but it was narrower on average (Table 6). In WY2024, width averaged 2.6 m (8.5 ft), length averaged 4.2 m (13.8 ft), and depth averaged 46.0 cm (18.1 in).
| Measurement | WY2024 Mean (Range of Prior Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| Width (m) | 2.6 ± 1.0 (2.9–3.5) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| Depth (cm) | 46.0 ± 19.3 (31.7–93.5) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| Length (m) | 4.2 ± 1.5 (2.7–4.5) | 2018–2023 (5) |
Water Quality
Core water quality (Table 7) and water chemistry (Table 8) data were collected at the primary sampling location. In WY2024, dissolved oxygen, specific conductivity, water temperature, total dissolved solids, calcium, chloride, magnesium, potassium, and sulphate values were within the ranges of prior measurements. pH was higher than in the past and alkalinity was lower.
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 7.49 (1.65–9.01) | 2018–2023 (9) |
| 001 | pH | 8.01 (7.44–7.77) | 2018–2022 (8) |
| 001 | Specific conductivity (µS/cm) | 574.0 (571.7–623.0) | 2018–2023 (9) |
| 001 | Temperature (°C) | 5.8 (4.1–8.0) | 2018–2023 (15) |
| 001 | Total dissolved solids (mg/L) | 373.1 (371.8–405.0) | 2018–2023 (9) |
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Alkalinity (CaCO3) | 295 (310–400) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 001 | Calcium (Ca) | 50 (46–52) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 001 | Chloride (Cl) | 5 (0–34) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 001 | Magnesium (Mg) | 50 (45–70) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 001 | Potassium (K) | 1.3 (0.4–1.6) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 001 | Sulphate (SO4) | 1 (0–9) | 2018–2023 (5) |
Guadalupe Spring
Highlights: The wetted area and discharge were similar to prior years, and the spring contained water year round. We observed one new invasive plant species: rabbitsfoot grass.
Guadalupe Spring (Figures 17 and 18) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels) located in a wash beneath the east slopes of El Capitan. The spring emerges from two orifices about 2 m apart along a hillside dense with shrubs and grasses. Flow from these orifices combines to form a channel that continues over 200 m down a gently sloped drainage, supporting dense, mat-forming grasses along the stream and several wetland plant species. The consistent flow is interspersed with shallow pools. The WY2024 visit occurred on 15 March 2024, and the spring contained water.
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Site Condition
No natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Guadalupe Spring in WY2024. Animal trails, tracks, and scat throughout the system indicate wildlife has been using the site.
As in past years, we did not observe invasive non-native crayfish or American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) at Guadalupe Spring in WY2024. We observed two species of invasive non-native plants at the spring: scattered patches of annual rabbitsfoot grass (Polypogon monspeliensis, not previously observed) and 1–5 sowthistle plants (Sonchus sp., 1–5 plants observed in 2022).
We found five obligate/facultative wetland plants at Guadalupe Spring in WY2024: horsetail (Equisetum sp., a forb observed in 2017–2023); maidenhair fern (Adiantum sp., a fern observed in 2018–2023); mule-fat (Baccharis salicifolia, a shrub observed in 2017–2023); a member of the rush family (Juncaceae, observed in 2019–2023); and a sedge (Carex sp., observed in 2018–2023).
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
In WY2024, eight water samples were collected from Guadalupe Spring. Similar to WY2023, none of our target organisms were detected.
Water Quantity
Sensors are deployed and data are downloaded during our annual visit; the dates of these visits are indicated by black diamonds in the persistence graph (Figure 19). The temperature sensor indicated that Guadalupe Spring was wetted (contained water) for all 167 days (100%) measured in WY2024 up to the visit. In prior water years, the spring was wetted 91.0–100% of the days measured across entire years.
NPS
Discharge was estimated at 20.9 ± 0.6 L/min (5.5 ± 0.1 gal/min), which fell within the range of 19.9–31.0 L/min recorded over the last six years, although it was on the lower end of that range (Table 9). Wetted extent was evaluated using a method for flowing water. Overall, the wetted extent of Guadalupe Spring was comparable with prior years. The total springbrook length was estimated to be between 200 and 500 m (656–1,640 ft), consistent with the prior range of a measured 100 m (328 ft) to an estimated 200–500 m (656–1,640 ft). Within the first 100 m of the springbrook, width and depth averaged 74.4 cm (29.3 in) and 2.6 cm (1.0 in), respectively. Both values were within the historical ranges (Table 10).
| Sampling Location | WY2024 Mean (Range of Prior Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| 002 | 20.9 ± 0.6 (19.9–31.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Measurement | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values/Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| Width (cm) | 74.4 ± 57.5 (53.8–107.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Depth (cm) | 2.6 ± 2.2 (1.8–4.8) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Length (m) | 100.0 (100.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Water Quality
Core water quality (Table 11) and water chemistry (Table 12) data were collected at the primary sampling location at the spring orifice in WY2024. A syringe was used to collect the sample for water chemistry, which may affect our results. Values for dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductivity, water temperature, total dissolved solids, calcium, chloride, magnesium, and sulphate were within the ranges of prior values. Alkalinity and potassium levels were higher than in prior years.
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 7.29 (6.34–8.35) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 001 | pH | 7.58 (7.30–7.83) | 2017–2022 (5) |
| 001 | Specific conductivity (µS/cm) | 726 (714–759) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Temperature (°C) | 15.6 (13.7–19.6) | 2017–2023 (8) |
| 001 | Total dissolved solids (mg/L) | 472.2 (464.0–494.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Alkalinity (CaCO3) | 285 (235–265) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Calcium (Ca) | 82 (70–110) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Chloride (Cl) | b.d.l. (b.d.l.–170) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Magnesium (Mg) | 39 (32–60) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Potassium (K) | 1.8 (0.3–1.3) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Sulphate (SO4) | 145 (118–160) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Smith Spring
Highlights: The spring was wet year round as it has been since monitoring began, though there are periods of missing data. The wetted area was similar to prior years. There was significant human trampling of the stream banks.
Smith Spring (Figures 20 and 21) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels). The spring appears from two orifices beneath boulders and cobble to form a springbrook that flows for more than 100 m in a forested drainage in the Guadalupe Mountains. The stream flow is consistent and interspersed with plunge pools, the largest of which measures 6 m across. The channel is lined with large boulders and occasionally eroded and undercut banks. Wetland plants thrive along the upper portions of the system, but banks along the lower reaches have more bare and compacted soil. The WY2024 visit occurred on 18 March 2024, and the spring contained water.
NPS
NPS
Site Condition
In WY2024, we rated Smith Spring slightly disturbed by fire because of charred stumps at the site (rated undisturbed to slightly disturbed in the past); slightly disturbed by windthrow, with trees down across the springbrook (rated undisturbed to moderately disturbed in the past); and highly disturbed by hiking trails and moderately disturbed by contemporary human use because a popular hiking trail leads to and crosses the springbrook and riparian vegetation is trampled along 30–40% of the banks (rated slightly to highly disturbed in the past). No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Smith Spring in WY2024.
As in past years, we did not observe invasive non-native crayfish or American bullfrog (Rana catesbeianus) at Smith Spring in WY2024. We did not look for invasive non-native plants in WY2024.
We observed three obligate/facultative wetland plant species at Smith Spring in WY2024: maidenhair fern (Adiantum sp., a fern observed in 2018–2023); a member of the rush family (Juncaceae, observed in 2023); and sedge (Carex sp., observed in 2018–2023).
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
In WY2024, eight water samples were collected from Smith Spring. Similar to WY2023, none of our target organisms were detected.
Water Quantity
Sensors are deployed and data are downloaded during our annual visit; the dates of these visits are indicated by black diamonds in the persistence graph (Figure 22). The temperature sensor indicated that Smith Spring was wetted (contained water) for all 170 days (100%) measured in WY2024 up to the visit. In prior water years, the spring was wetted 99.5–100% of the days measured.
NPS
Discharge was not measured in WY2024 at the primary sampling location. In WY2023, discharge was estimated at 330.2 L/min (87.3 gal/min; Table 13). Wetted extent was evaluated using a method for flowing water. The total springbrook length was estimated to be between 100 and 200 m (328–656 ft), consistent with the past range of a measured 99.6 m (326.8 ft) to an estimated 100–200 m (328–656 ft). In WY2024, width and depth in the first 100 m of the springbrook averaged 2.1 m (81.9 in) and 4.0 cm (1.6 in), respectively. Both values were within their historical ranges (Table 14).
| Sampling Location | WY2024 Mean (Range of Prior Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| 011 | c.n.s. (330.2) | 2023 (1) |
| Measurement | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values/Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| Width (m) | 2.1 ± 1.3 (1.6–2.1) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Depth (cm) | 4.0 ± 1.8 (2.0–27.7) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Length (m) | 100.0 (99.6–100.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Water Quality
Core water quality (Table 15) and water chemistry (Table 16) data were collected at the primary sampling location. In WY2024, all water quality and chemistry parameters were within the ranges of values recorded in prior years.
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 7.57 (6.98–7.59) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 001 | pH | 7.38 (7.24–7.68) | 2017–2022 (5) |
| 001 | Specific conductivity (µS/cm) | 532 (527–535) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Temperature (°C) | 14.8 (14.5–15.1) | 2017–2023 (8) |
| 001 | Total dissolved solids (mg/L) | 345.6 (343.0–348.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Alkalinity (CaCO3) | 330 (260–330) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Calcium (Ca) | 48 (24–72) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Chloride (Cl) | 2 (0–14) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Magnesium (Mg) | 40 (23–80) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Potassium (K) | 0.6 (0.0–1.4) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Sulphate (SO4) | 1 (0–5) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Upper Pine Spring
Highlights: The spring was wet year round, similar to prior years. The wetted area was similar to average. We observed one new invasive plant species: rabbitsfoot grass.
Upper Pine Spring (Figures 23 and 24) is a rheocrene spring (a spring that emerges into one or more stream channels), appearing from two orifices inside a southeast-facing drainage near the mouth of Bear Canyon. Flow from the orifices combines to form a spring channel (with multiple plunge pools) that has ranged from 40 to 74 m in length in recent years. The stream is lined with boulders under a canopy of oaks, pines, and junipers. The WY2024 visit occurred on 17 March 2024, and the spring contained water.
NPS
NPS
Site Condition
In WY2024, we rated Upper Pine Spring slightly disturbed by fire because there are charred stumps along the banks (rated undisturbed to slightly disturbed in the past) and slightly disturbed by wildlife, with tracks, trampling, rooting, and scat at the site (rated slightly to moderately disturbed in the past; Figure 25). No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Upper Pine Spring in WY2024.
NPS
As in past years, we did not observe invasive non-native crayfish or American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) at Upper Pine Spring in WY2024. We observed two species of invasive non-native plants at the spring: scattered patches of watercress (Nasturtium officinale, 1–5 plants to scattered patches observed in 2017–2023) and scattered patches of annual rabbitsfoot grass (Polypogon monspeliensis, not previously observed).
We observed four obligate/facultative wetland plant species at Upper Pine Spring in WY2024: maidenhair fern (Adiantum sp., a fern observed in 2018–2023); a sedge (Carex sp., observed in 2017–2023); a different member of the sedge family (Cyperaceae, observed in 2018–2023); and spikerush (Eleocharis sp., a sedge observed in 2018–2023).
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
In WY2024, six water samples were collected from Upper Pine Spring. Similar to WY2023, none of our target organisms were detected.
Water Quantity
Sensors are deployed and data are downloaded during our annual visit; the dates of these visits are indicated by black diamonds in the persistence graph (Figure 26). The temperature sensor indicated that Upper Pine Spring was wetted (contained water) for all 169 days (100%) measured in WY2024 up to the visit. In prior water years, the spring was wetted 98.9–100% of the days measured across entire years.
NPS
Discharge was taken at an alternate sampling location in WY2024, so an estimate is not available for the primary sampling location. In WY2023, discharge was estimated at 24.6 L/min (6.5 gal/min; Table 17). Wetted extent was evaluated using a method for flowing water. While the length and average width of Upper Pine Spring were comparable with prior years, it was slightly shallower on average. The total springbrook length was 65.3 m (214.2 ft), which was within the historical range of 40.1 to 74.4 m (131.6 to 244.1 ft). In WY2024, width and depth along the springbrook averaged 81.2 cm (32.0 in) and 3.6 cm (1.4 in), respectively (Table 18).
| Sampling Location | WY2024 Mean (Range of Prior Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| 002 | c.n.s. (24.6) | 2023 (1) |
| Measurement | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values/Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| Width (cm) | 81.2 ± 62.7 (62.0–99.6) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Depth (cm) | 3.6 ± 1.8 (4.0–17.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Length (m) | 65.3 (40.1–74.4) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Water Quality
In WY2024, core water quality (Table 19) and water chemistry (Table 20) data were collected at the primary sampling location at the orifice of Upper Pine Spring. Dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductivity, temperature, total dissolved solids, calcium, chloride, magnesium, potassium, and sulphate values were within the ranges of prior measurements. Alkalinity was higher than in prior years.
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 6.88 (5.56–7.43) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | pH | 7.39 (7.27–7.58) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Specific conductivity (µS/cm) | 519.0 (512.9–533.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Temperature (°C) | 14.6 (12.7–15.4) | 2017–2023 (8) |
| 001 | Total dissolved solids (mg/L) | 337.6 (333.0–346.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Alkalinity (CaCO3) | 320 (275–310) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Calcium (Ca) | 54 (22–56) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Chloride (Cl) | 4 (2–64) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Magnesium (Mg) | 32 (1–195) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Potassium (K) | 1.4 (0.0–2.0) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 001 | Sulphate (SO4) | 5 (0–10) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Past Reports
Previous annual reports can be found at the following links:
Literature Cited
McIntyre, C., K. Gallo, E. Gwilliam, J.A. Hubbard, J. Christian, K. Bonebrake, G. Goodrum, M. Podolinsky, L. Palacios, et al. 2018. Springs, seeps, and tinajas monitoring protocol: Chihuahuan and Sonoran Desert Networks. Natural Resource Report. NPS/CHDN/NRR—2018/1796. National Park Service. Fort Collins, Colorado. https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/Reference/Profile/2257245
Tsakiris, G., and H. Vangelis. 2005. Establishing a drought index incorporating evapotranspiration. European Water 9: 3–11.
Author Information
Susan Singley 1
Kara Raymond 2 
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7265-5919
Tani Hubbard 3 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8777-4773
1
National Park Service
Chihuahuan Desert Network
New Mexico State University
MSC 3ARP, 3655 Research Dr.
Genesis Building D
Las Cruces, NM 88003
2
National Park Service
Southern Arizona Office
12661 E. Broadway Blvd.
Tucson, AZ 85748
3
Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative and National Park
Service
12661 E. Broadway Blvd.
Tucson, AZ 85748
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