North Cascades An Ethnographic Overview and Assessment of North Cascades National Park Service Complex

In October 1994 the National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Region, contracted with the Bureau for Faculty Research, Western Washington University, to provide an ethnographic overview and assessment of the North Cascades National Park Service Complex (NOCA). The principal investigator for this project was Daniel L. Boxberger, Professor of Anthropology at Western Washington University. He was aided in the research by two graduate student assistants, Tim McCoy, now Instructor of Anthropology at Tacoma Community College, and Robert Arzoo, Master's Candidate in Anthropology at Western Washington University.

The objectives of this study were two-fold.

1. To conduct an ethnographic overview and assessment of existing information on the historical American Indian populations who inhabited or made use of the North Cascades National Park Service Complex with an emphasis upon making connections between historical resource users and their descendants who may be identifiable as contemporary tribes, bands or First Nations.

2. To produce an integrated ethnographic overview and assessment document that a) focuses on cultural affiliations of park-associated populations of NOCA with reference to an expansion upon previous work by Allan H. Smith (1988) and b) present an exhaustive review and assessment of treaties, legislation, legal disputes and judicial decisions concerning access to natural or cultural resources managed by the National Park Service on the part of either American Indian tribes or Canadian First Nations.

1.1 Research Strategy

In order to comply with the stated objectives for this study a four-step process was followed.

1. An exhaustive search of the published ethnographic and historic data.
2. An exhaustive search of archival and other primary data.
3. Consultation with appropriate tribal organizations and other experts.
4. An evaluation and assessment of the ethnographic and ethnohistoric data base.

1. An exhaustive search of the published data included the compilation and evaluation of several types of information, most notably the ethnographic sources and local histories. The ethnographic information was gleaned for specific reference to the NOCA area or other traditional use patterns that may have relied on NOCA and environs. The local histories enabled an outline of Euroamerican exploration and settlement, with particular attention to interaction with and mention of Native Americans.

2. An exhaustive search of archival and other primary sources focused on repositories known to contain information relevant to the NOCA area. The repositories are listed below and were primarily useful for providing access to records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the records of the Hudson's Bay Company, early non-Native explorers accounts, Euroamerican settlers records and reminiscences, the records of the General Land Office, Indian Claims Commission and other federal agencies.

3. Consultation with appropriate tribal organizations and/or tribal cultural committees initiated this research for the purpose of informing the tribes of the nature of this project and requesting their assistance in locating relevant documentation. Consultation was also carried out with knowledgeable individuals including, cultural resource managers, National Park Service employees, anthropologists, archaeologists and historians.

4. Once the research phase was completed the materials were evaluated and organized according to categories based on the nature of the information and the general historical development of the ethnohistorical approach to Native American studies. The organized materials then formed the basis for the narrative portion of this report and provided the background necessary to make judgments concerning their utility in the decision-making process to meet federal management obligations and recommendations for future research.

This work conforms with contemporary standards for the disciplines of anthropology and ethnohistory. Terms which have specific meaning in these disciplines are defined in the text at the time of their introduction.

The ethnographic research component commenced with a review of published materials. The term "ethnography" refers to the descriptive account of an identifiable cultural group. Ethnographies do not exist for all of the tribes in proximity to the NOCA area. Two sources were used to identify the tribes whose territory extended into NOCA, Leslie Spier's Tribal Distribution in Washington (1936) and Wayne Suttles' map Native Languages of the Northwest Coast (1985) and ethnographic works on these groups were consulted first. From these ethnographic sources neighboring groups were identified and ethnographic works on them consulted. This enabled a review of the pertinent published ethnographic data on a geographic area that includes NOCA and adjacent territories. Once the target groups were identified from the ethnographies a process ethnohistorians call "upstreaming" was followed. Upstreaming refers to the technique of beginning the research at a specific point in time and then tracing historic data on a group back in time to the first known written records. This process began with published histories and then commenced to archival data. Archival data refers to the unpublished information including, but not limited to, government reports, reminiscences, diaries, ledgers, surveyor's reports, and other documentation which lends factual historical information to a specific group's history. During the course of research for this project the following libraries and archives were consulted.

Washington State Library, Olympia, WA
Washington State Archives, Olympia, WA
Washington State Archives, Northwest Region, Bellingham, WA
Center for Pacific Northwest Studies, Bellingham, WA
Washington State Archives, Central Region, Ellensburg, WA National Archives and Records Service, Washington, D.C. National Archives and Records Service, Northwest Branch, Seattle, WA
Archives and Manuscript Collection, Suzzallo Library, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
Pacific Northwest Collection, University of Washington, Seattle Bureau of Land Management (General Land Office Records), Portland, OR
Special Collections, Washington State University Library, Pullman, WA
Wilson Library, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA
Provincial Archives of British Columbia, Victoria, BC
Washington State Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Olympia, WA

Attempts were made to access tribal archives but with little success. Most of the pertinent information at tribal archives is of two types: copies or reprints of information that is available elsewhere; or information on traditional cultural properties that is not available to researchers except under limited circumstances. For this research the Yakama Tribal Archives was consulted but no limited-access information was made available. Research privileges were requested for the Colville Tribal Archives but denied. Other tribes either do not have archives or did not make the existence of relevant information known for this project. The Canadian bands consulted have limited textual material, mostly consisting of band business records, all badly in need of organization. The lack of systematic archival collections and the inability to access those archives that are operational restricted the use of tribal archives for this project.

Several individuals were consulted during the course of this research, including Bob Mierendorf, Archaeologist for NOCA; Bruce Miller, Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia; Allan Richardson, Instructor of Anthropology at Whatcom Community College; Kelly Bush, Archaeological Consultant working on the Skagit Valley Recreation Area; Brenda Crabtree, Heritage Resource Specialist at Xa:ytem (Hatzic Rock) (Sto:lo) and consultant to the NLakapamux Nation; Bob Pasco, Grand Chief of the NLakapamux Nation; Adeline Fredin, Cultural Resource Specialist for the Colville Tribe; Lawrence Joseph, Chair of the Sauk-Suaiattle Tribe; Jeff Bode, attorney for the Nooksack Tribe; Al Reid, Archaeological Consultant; Lynn Robbins, Professor of Environmental Studies at Huxley College; Robert Keller, Professor Emeritus of Fairhaven College; and John Miles, Professor of Environmental Studies at Huxley College. These individuals were consulted primarily to ensure there were no obvious sources missing from the data base. Researchers in the past have focused on specific aspects of NOCA history and cultural affiliation. This study marks the first attempt to synthesize the data for the purpose of evaluating the ethnographic data base.

At the outset of this research letter contacts were made with nine tribal and band representatives in Washington and British Columbia. The tribes and bands contacted include Upper Skagit, Sauk-Suiattle, Nooksack, Lummi, Yakama, Colville, Sto:lo, N'Lakapamux, and Okanagan. The different designations "tribe" and "band" are used because the term tribe is used in the United States to refer to a legally recognized Native group and the term band is used in Canada to refer to a legally recognized First Nation. In use the two terms have similar meaning as political designations. This often presents a point of confusion as these two terms have different meaning in anthropological parlance. The terms "tribe" and "band" designate levels of socio-political organization to the anthropologist. In usage by the governments of Canada and the United States these terms apply to a broad array of Native American organizations. All of the letter contacts were followed with telephone calls but with limited results. One of the principal issues surrounding this research is the need to incorporate tribal participation. This matter is discussed further below.

1.2 Organization of Study

The narrative which follows is organized into three main sections. First, a review of the ethnographic and ethnohistoric data on the Native people of NOCA. This data is organized chronologically and topically into six categories. The ethnography consists of the early ethnography, the Indian Claims Commission related research and more recent site-specific research. The history consisted of the writings of early explorers and fur traders, Euroamerican settler reminiscences and secondary sources.

The descriptive ethnography focuses on the ethnographic writings from the early part of the 1900s. Works by both professional and amateur ethnographers is discussed in relation to the general mode of anthropological presentation of the era. This is followed by an assessment of the anthropological reports of the 1950s and 1960s stimulated by the implementation of the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946. Much seminal ethnographic data was collected by professional anthropologists to be used as evidence in Indian Claims Commission hearings. While some of this work overlaps with the earlier descriptive ethnography, mostly it represented a new approach in Native American ethnography. In more recent years much of the ethnographic work has been project stimulated, that is, work contracted by federal agencies to assist them in making management decisions.

The ethnohistoric data consists of primary sources in the form of references to Native people in the writings of the earliest non-Native explorations into NOCA. This was followed by non-Native settlement in areas peripheral to NOCA but which made reference to Native people and their practices. The third type of ethnohistoric data are secondary sources, consisting of professional and amateur histories of the North Cascades or specific areas within NOCA. None of the histories specifically focus on Native people but, like the primary sources, do provide some glimpses into the lives of Native people of the area. The second section is an overview of relevant treaties, laws and judicial decisions that affect Native people and their access and use of NOCA lands. This section is organized chronologically and discusses the rights of federally-recognized tribal members to federal lands and the responsibilities of federal land managers. Contemporary issues surrounding use and access of park resources is outlined. This is followed by a discussion of the implications of these issues for NOCA.

The third section will evaluate the data base for the purpose of determining their utility for federal resource management. In addition, the data base will be examined to identify gaps or inadequacies in the ethnographic information for the purpose of recommending future research needs. Specific recommendations will be outlined and a program of research suggested.

The above sections are followed by an annotated bibliography of materials used for this overview and assessment.