North Cascades Salmon on the Skagit River Watershed

"...among our northern coasts, salmon was once the staple of life. Indians lived on the returning waves of salmon. Several times a year, the silvery benediction thronged up the rivers. The Indians held holy ceremonies, sang to the first spring fish, and carefully returned their bones to the water, that the fish might reflesh and return to feed humankind. The shamans would see them coming in visions, and said they were the people who lived in magic villages under the sea, and who disguised themselves as fish to visit the people of the river. Salmon were not just food, but a connection with the past, the gods, and the great round of life.

To see a salmon run is to see into the veins of the planet. Take an eagle's view of the northwest coast and look down from the imagined air of the past, into rivers flowing red with spawning sockeye, or silvery with homing steelhead. Salmon moved like plasma in the stream, carrying back from the sea the healing substances the river itself once gave up to salt. They brought back the cast-off skin of mayfly, the soft black corpse of mosquito, the faded flash of smaller fish that did not make it to sea. They brought back the bark of alder and the leaf of willow. And when they had battered their way back to the ancestral gravels and spawned, their bodies changed. They aged and diseased and died, returning all these things to the mountain stream, and closing the circle of life.

Millions of salmon struggled thus upriver, sometimes more than a thousand miles from the sea, to die and leave new life in the creeks. It's an event we have regarded as brute profligacy, something lavishly savage. But salmon do not die as we do. They die to give the rivers life. Their flesh goes back to the gravels to feed the young hatchlings. Their bodies wash up on the shorelines to feed scavenging bears and eagles. They take fin and wing again and again. They die, not as error, or sacrifice but as dance and poem, as a song to the roundness of life.

So it was when the land was whole. But we have straightened the circle, dammed the rivers, muddied the waters. The salmon runs are in trouble. And if we take the plasma out of the land's arteries what will happen to those of us who bump about on its skin? The lives of fish and human may be wound around each other in ways we can no longer recall. We are just beginning to find that there is more to rivers than just water. As the fish go, so, ultimately, may we."

--- Peter Steinhart

The learning objectives for this project:

1. Students, teachers, and parent chaperones will be able to name the salmon that use the waters in the Skagit River Watershed and North Cascades National Park Service Complex, several of the measures the park is taking for their preservation, and the importance of protecting the salmon.
2. Students, teachers, and parent chaperones will be able to describe the importance of the North Cascades National Park Service Complex in the life cycle of at least two of the five species of salmon in the Skagit River Watershed.
3. Participants will be able to briefly describe the National Park idea and how it pertains to the preservation of salmon habitat.

Note: Bold, underlined words are defined in the glossary. Simply click on the word to view the glossary entry for the word.

Funding for this project was provided by a Parks as Classrooms grant from the National Park Service.
Edited by: Cindy Bjorklund and Tim Manns
Text by: Paula Ogden
Design by: Arlene Frazier

These materials may be photocopied for classroom use only. To request permission to use text or graphics for any other purposes please contact:
Education Coordinator
North Cascades National Park Service Complex
2105 State Route 20
Sedro-Woolley, WA 98284
(360) 856-5700 ext. 365

December 1997

The life of the salmon is a cycle.

The length of each stage of this cycle varies with each species of salmon.

Salmon begin their lives as reddish, pea-sized eggs in the gravel of a fresh water creek, river, or stream. It is in this same stream that their parents were born. Many eggs share the same nest or redd.

Salmon eggs stay in the redd for one to four months. The tiny, newly hatched fish, known as alevins, remain in the gravel layer for several weeks. During this stage they are nutritionally dependent on the yolk sac that is attached to their bellies. Once the yolk sac is absorbed, the alevins enter the fry stage.

In the fry stage, salmon eat zooplankton until they grow large enough to eat crustaceans and insects. Fry will feed in the area of the redd for up to several years. Fry grow into fingerlings.

Fingerlings are four to five inches long. They eat snails, worms, freshwater shrimp, amphibian larvae, fish eggs, and young fish.

Fingerlings of pink and chum salmon species, as soon as they move from the fry stage, will migrate downstream to coastal estuaries, where the fresh water meets the ocean. Fingerlings of other species remain in fresh water for two months to three years before migrating to the estuary.

Once the fingerlings reach the estuary they are called smolt. These small fish spend time in the estuary while their bodies undergo changes to help them adjust to salt water living.

For the next two to five years the salmon will swim hundreds of miles in the Pacific Ocean in search of food and trying to stay out of the mouths of predators.

Timing of Life Histories of Skagit River Salmon
(From The Mountains to the Sea, Saul Weisberg and Jon Riedel)

Mature salmon return to the same estuary they visited as a smolt. The mature salmon will be guided by the chemical blueprint smell of the water of its natal stream and find its way back home.

In the estuary, the salmon's habits change; it will no longer feed, but will derive energy from stored fats The appearance of the fish changes as well; the males change radically. Turning from silvery to various shades and combinations of red, green, and brown, the male salmon develops a hooked jaw and, in some cases, a humped back. The female's changes are more subtle, usually involving only a slight change in color and pattern.

The female constructs several redds. The adults may guard the redds once they have finished spawning, but, eventually, their exhausted bodies will wash downstream.

The carcasses of the adult fish feed scavengers. The nutrients of their decaying bodies feed stream organisms which will, in turn, feed the young salmon.

A female salmon will lay several thousand eggs. Less than 1 percent of those eggs will survive to become spawning adults.

The three most important factors that influence stream habitat for salmon are water quality, water quantity, and the physical structure of the stream.

Water quality includes water temperature, chemistry, and turbidity:

Salmon are cold-blooded. The rate of their body activities is directly related to the temperature of the water.

Salmon can survive within a temperature range of 42-88 degrees Fahrenheit, although 55 degrees Fahrenheit is ideal. Temperatures are affected by the rate of flow of the water, the water's turbidity, and variations in the region's weather. The temperature also affects the amount of dissolved oxygen that the water carries.

Salmon prefer water that is a neutral pH of 7; it is neither acidic or basic. Unnaturally high concentrations of toxins or pollutants create direct and indirect hazards for salmon. Such substrates can affect the population of organisms upon which salmon feed, thereby creating an inadequate food supply. Salmon may feed on tainted insects, resulting in illness and/or death of the fish. Certain chemicals can be tolerated by some organisms, but these chemicals build up in their body tissues and are passed on to other predators and, thus, through the food chain.

Oxygen that is dissolved in water is necessary for the respiration of aquatic animals. Fish take in this dissolved oxygen through their gills. The amount of dissolved oxygen in the water system affects the efficiency of oxygen uptake by aquatic animals and affects their ability to function efficiently in their environment.

In April 1991 an agreement was signed which is crucial to the survival of salmon in the Skagit Watershed.

This agreement stipulates that Seattle City Light will provide adequate water flow in the Skagit River, downstream of Gorge Powerhouse in Newhalem, to assist in perpetuating salmon occupation of the watershed. Specifically, Seattle City Light will limit maximum flow levels and maintain minimum flow levels during the migration of adult spawning salmon, while salmon eggs occupy the redds and until fry emerge, and for the length of time the fry commonly inhabit the gravel beds.

The Fisheries Settlement Agreement brought together the City of Seattle, City Light Department and the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service; U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; U.S. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service; Upper Skagit Tribe, Sauk-Suiattle Tribe, and Swinomish Indian Tribal Community; Washington Department of Fisheries; Washington Department of Wildlife; and the North Cascades Conservation Council. (Skagit River Hydroelectric Project. Fisheries Settlement Agreement. 4/91)

Water quantity:

High water flow can be hazardous to salmon at all life stages. This condition can result in eggs being covered by silt and other materials, can cause eggs to wash out of the gravel, move juveniles downstream too quickly, and make it too difficult for spawners to return upstream.

Low water affects salmon populations by isolating eggs and juveniles in pools whose temperatures increase while the dissolved oxygen content decreases, and also causes them to be more susceptible to predation. Low water makes it difficult for out-migrating juveniles and in-migrating spawners to reach their destinations.

"The rate of water movement influences the types of organisms found in the stream, affects the transport of nutrients through a system, affects the transport of suspended solids and sediments, adds oxygen necessary for organisms which inhabit the stream by rippling of surface waters and aeration activity, provides greater evaporation which has a cooling effect temperature wise, affects the composition of the stream bed." (Small Streams and Salmonoids: A handbook for water quality studies. Dyckman, C. and Garrod, S. Eds. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. 1980. p.46)

Physical structure of the stream:

A productive salmon water system needs to have pools, riffles and rapids, side channels, and woody debris.

Pools are a crucial factor because they offer hiding places amongst boulders and woody debris for young fish and areas of respite for migrating adults. Riffle and rapid areas mix air with the water, thereby increasing the oxygen content of the water; these areas support a richer concentration of aquatic insect larvae (salmon food!) than slower moving parts of the water system. Woody debris creates riffles and rapids, and contributes to the formation of pools. The debris also gives aquatic insects shelter. Side channels are rich in aquatic insect life and are important habitats for juvenile salmon. These areas also provide places of escape for juveniles during high water.

The cumulative impact of urban development, industry, mining, agriculture, fishing, and forestry, has had serious effects on the health of the population of salmon that call the Skagit River Watershed their home.

Salmon depend on both the salt water and the fresh water systems. They have far-ranging territories. The health of their populations indicate clear interdependencies between the two water systems and the stability of both systems is imperative to the survival of salmon.

Salmon are indicators of the health of the Skagit River Watershed, of the Greater North Cascades Ecosystem, and beyond. Strict environmental requirements exist for a healthy salmon population. Salmon find nourishment in all sections of the watershed. Their flesh, in turn nourishes many creatures. They are connected in a web of life that includes us. Salmon populations are decreasing worldwide for a reason. The Skagit Watershed is changing. We can look toward salmon as an indicator of the health of our environment and as a barometer for the wisdom of our decisions.

Salmon were an integral facet in the lives of the Native Americans who once resided in the Skagit River watershed.

"The abundance...and predictability of their spawning runs exerted an important influence on where (Native) people chose to establish (their)...villages" (Mierendorf and Reid, 1986).

The fish were a major food source and acted as a valuable trade item. Salmon also inspired artwork, stories, and teachings.

"On the west slope of the North Cascades, annual runs of salmon occurred within the Skagit River and its tributaries as far as the Skagit gorge above Newhalem" (Mierendorf and Reid, 1986).

Camps were established where fish were abundant; some of the camps were permanent villages, while others were used seasonally.

Salmon substantially contributed to the diet of the Native Americans. Fish were caught in nets and weirs made of cedar and grasses, with hook and line, and spears.

"Special guardian spirit power played an important role in fishing activities. Power was required...in making effective dip nets, and in supervising and carrying out specialized weir construction" (Smith, 1988).

"Although fish were eaten fresh, most were smoke-dried for winter. To be prepared for eating, salmon were covered with wet moss and steam-baked whole in an ash pit; were cut into pieces and stone-boiled in a box or basket, were split, spread with small splints, skewered onto sticks, and roasted in a slanting row around a fire; and prepared into small slices, were grilled over a fire. Salmon eggs were wrapped in alder bark and either roasted in hot ashes or hung over a small fire to dry for later consumption" (Smith, 1988).

"Fish oil, rendered and stored in large quantities, was also an important item in the (Native American's) larder, serving many purposes. It was his butter, dressing for salads, or for dried berries and dried fish, skin conditioner..." (Sampson, 1972).

The arrival of the of the salmon was marked with special ceremonies and rituals which honored the salmon and requested their return in subsequent years.

A watershed is a geographic region within which water drains into a particular river, stream, or body of water. The highest ground around the watershed forms its boundaries. A watershed provides a stellar example of how everything is connected; the overall health of the watershed is hinged to the health of the land and every creek, river, or stream within that region.

The Skagit River Watershed

"The Skagit (River) is the third largest river on the west coast of the contiguous United States. The river and its tributaries are the focus of life for more than 1.7 million acres of the North Cascades...the Skagit is the largest watershed in the Puget Sound Basin, providing over 20 percent of the water flowing into the Sound. This translates into nearly 10 billion gallons each day. With over 2,900 streams, it drains 3,130 square miles (2,730 square miles in Washington and 400 square miles in British Columbia). In Washington the river basin encompasses most of Skagit County and the northeastern parts of Snohomish and Whatcom Counties. The journey of the Skagit River begins in the mountains of Manning Provincial Park in British Columbia. From its headwaters, the river meanders southwest for 25 miles, then turns southeast for seven miles to the U.S. border. It then flows south for 20 miles in Washington until turning west to break through the crest of the North Cascades mountains on its way to Puget Sound." (Sharing the Skagit: An educator's guide to the Skagit River Watershed. North Cascades Institute. 1993. p.7)

"The Skagit River Watershed has major runs of four species of Pacific salmon and a small run of sockeye salmon. Present management of salmon is under the jurisdiction of the State of Washington and the consolidated Skagit Tribes. The three Skagit Tribes include the Swinomish, Upper Skagit and Sauk/Suiattle. These agencies are responsible for the management and preservation of salmon runs both through the regulation of sport and commercial harvest and habitat management." (Russell F. Orrell, retired Regional Biologist, Washington State Department of Fisheries)

The mission of the National Park Service is to preserve and protect this land for future generations. It is important to take care of the salmon for the salmon's sake, for the sake of the myriad of creatures that depend on the salmon for survival, and for the sake of future generations of human beings so that they too may marvel at the sight of salmon, returning to spawn in their natal waters.

"The high quality of fish runs of the Skagit is due, in part, to the protection that the upper slopes of the watershed receive by inclusion in the wilderness areas of North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Mount Baker-Snoqualmie and Okanogan National Forests." (Sharing the Skagit: An educator's guide to the Skagit River Watershed. North Cascades Institute. 1993. p.27)

"(Salmon have a) remarkable range of physical variation and survival strategies...Mature males and females of the same species can be strikingly different in appearance; spawning adults differ greatly from fish in the ocean; certain fish will remain close to their home streams rather than circle the North Pacific, returning earlier and thus smaller than others their age." (Robert Steelquist. Field Guide to the Pacific Salmon. Sasquatch Books. 1992. p.9)

The Salmon Species That Run Through the Skagit River Watershed

Five species of salmon utilize the Skagit River Watershed.

• Sockeye
• Pink
• Coho
• Chum
• Chinook

Sockeye Salmon (also called reds) Oncorhyncus nerka Sockeye salmon spawn only in streams having lakes in their watershed. The young fish, known as fry, spend one to three years in the freshwater before migrating to the ocean. They spend three to four years in the salt water, and thus are four to six years old when they return to spawn in the fall (September-December). Sockeye are blue tinged with silver in color during their ocean life. Male sockeye develop a hump during their transition from salt to fresh water and their jaw and teeth become hooked. Both sexes return to spawn with bright red bodies, green heads, and a dark stripe on their sides. When mature, they average 33 inches in length and weigh six to eight pounds.

Pink Salmon (also called humpies) Oncorhyncus gorbuscha Pink salmon spawn in the Skagit Watershed only every other year; during years that end with odd numbers (1995, 1997, 1999...). This species prefers sloughs and slow moving water for spawning. The young emerge from the gravel during April and May and quickly migrate downstream as fry. They return to freshwater in the fall of the following year as two year old adults. These are the most abundant and the smallest of the Pacific salmon with an average weight of five to six pounds and length of 30 inches. These fish change from bright silver in the ocean to pale gray on the back with yellowish white belly when spawning. The males develop a large humpback during spawning, hence their nickname "humpies."

Coho Salmon (also called silvers) Oncorhyncus kisutch Coho salmon utilize shallower reaches of water and small streams in the Skagit Watershed for spawning. The young spend one to two years in the fresh water before migrating to the ocean in late March through July. During their ocean phase, coho have silver sides and dark blue backs. They will live in the salt water for one or two years before returning to spawn. During their spawning phase, the jaws and teeth of the coho become hooked, and they develop bright red sides, bluish green heads and backs, dark bellies with dark spots on their back. Mature coho average 38 inches in length and seven to 11 pounds in weight.

Chum Salmon (also called dog) Oncorhyncus keta Chum fry migrate out to sea from March through July, almost immediately after becoming free swimmers. They spend one to three years traveling long distances in the ocean. Their ocean coloration of silvery blue green changes for spawning to splotchy purplish red and with distinct yellow and pink vertical bars on their sides. Color in the female is similar but not usually as distinct. Chum salmon develop a very hooked jaw with fierce teeth at spawning time. These are the last salmon to spawn (November to January). They utilize the lower tributaries of the watershed, tend to build redds in shallow edges of the watercourse and at the tail end of deep pools. Chum, on average, weigh eight to nine pounds and measure 40 inches in length. This species of salmon is the favored meal for wintering Skagit bald eagles.

Chinook Salmon (also called king, tyee, blackmouth) Oncorhyncus tshawytscha Chinook are the least abundant species of salmon in the Skagit River Watershed. They are the longest lived and largest of the Pacific salmon. Chinooks spend one or more years in the fresh water before migrating to the ocean. They generally remain in the ocean for two to four years, although some stay as long as eight years. Chinook are overall olive-brown to purple in color with large irregular spots on their backs, upper sides and tails. The males are usually darker than the females. They do not change radically in appearance during spawning as other salmon do. Their principal spawning months are from August through October. "There are two runs of wild Chinook in the Skagit Watershed, known as the spring run and the summer run. The spring run spawns in the headwaters of smaller streams in the Skagit Watershed. The summer run spawns in the main stem of the Skagit River." (North Cascades Institute. Eagle Watchers Training Manual). Chinook, because of their size, generally stay in the deep, fast waters of larger streams and rivers. Chinook average 20 pounds in weight, but have been recorded up to 135 pounds, and can grow to a length of 58 inches.

WHERE HAVE ALL THE SALMON GONE?

1. Place the rope on the ground in a circle or other shape. Have the students stand inside the rope. Explain to them that the rope represents their space, and they cannot stray outside the boundary of that space. Also remind them that they represent young salmon of the Skagit River Watershed. They are constantly searching for food, water, and shelter for survival. Life is good, though, and they have plenty of space in which to wander and find what they need.
2. Randomly scatter the Round One chips within the circle and tell the students they need to gather at least one of each color chip in order to survive. Make sure they know they must walk, not run, and that pushing is not allowed. You may want to ask the students to close their eyes as you scatter the chips so they will have to search for their food a little bit.
3. After the students have gathered up all the chips, find out who has enough chips and who does not. Those who did gather at least one chip that represents water, one chip that represents food, and one that represents shelter are considered survivors. Have those who did not survive become spectators. Remind the students that every salmon needs to work to find its food, water, and shelter and must compete with other salmon, other species of fish, and animals to find enough to survive. (Note: although theoretically, there are enough chips for each student to obtain one of each habitat requirement/color, some students may have gathered more than one of a certain habitat requirement, therefore, not each student may get one chip of each requirement and will have to step out for future rounds.)

1. The students who did not survive Round One are now spectators. The students who survived Round One should stand inside the rope circle.
2. Scatter the Round Two chips within the rope circle and repeat Round One's procedure.
3. During the discussion, use the childrens' name tags to point out the decrease in numbers of salmon and the species of salmon that no longer live in the Watershed. Make the point that as habitat decreases, the available food, water, and shelter also decline, making survival more of a challenge. As habitat decreases, the diversity of salmon decreases too because different species utilize different sections of the Watershed. Be certain to mention that that as habitat decreases, the availability of food, water, and shelter also decreases, making survival more of a challenge.

1. Tighten the rope circle now, making the "habitat area" smaller, barely large enough for the remaining students to stand in.
2. Repeat the procedure, using the Round Three set of chips.
3. Again, point out that as the habitat area decreases, so does the number and variety of salmon.

1. Make the rope circle even smaller, too small for all the remaining students to fit.
2. Using the Round Four set of chips, play the game once more.

Discussion
In the final discussion, point out that salmon need habitat to survive. If there is not enough food, water, and shelter for the salmon, their numbers will decline, and eventually disappear. And as illustrated in Round Four, habitat can be reduced to a point where there is not even enough space for salmon. National parks and wilderness areas are set aside as habitat preserves for wild organisms, including salmon. As development expands along park boundaries, the remaining habitat within parks become more and more valuable and may not be adequate for some species to survive.

It has become obvious that the habitat areas protected within parks may not be enough for salmon to survive.

Write the words "extinct," "endangered," and "threatened" on the chalkboard or on another surface for all to see. Tell the students that their populations became endangered or threatened when they became small in number. An "endangered" species is any organism (plant, bird, fish or animal species) that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. A "threatened" species is one that is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. "Extinction" means that organism is gone from Earth forever and that it is final.

Tell students that the sizes of salmon runs in the Pacific Northwest are declining. Some runs of salmon have become threatened, endangered, and extinct. Take time to talk about the needs of salmon. ("Biodiversity" would do well to be introduced here. The term biodiversity is defined below.) What do they think about the fact that the salmon numbers are declining? Please discuss the term extinction and the connotations of this term. How does protected land help the salmon? Can the salmon survive if the land inside of national parks is the only intact habitat for salmon?

Ask the students to think of ways they can help preserve salmon. Some answers might include not littering, picking up litter when they find it, not dumping wastes into the water system, using less electricity (less need for dams), protecting salmon habitat in their neighborhood by being careful around stream and in forest groves, and teaching others about the importance of salmon habitat protection.

(Adapted from The Living Forest and used with permission of Olympic National Park)

HOME SWEET HOME

Prior to doing this activity the instructor should gather photos from sporting goods magazines and outdoor catalogues which show streams, creeks, and rivers. A reliable source for such materials is a sporting goods store that deals in fishing equipment.

The instructor may also choose to take the class to a salmon stream or have the students go outside of class time.

1. Ask students to draw a picture of a stream habitat that would provide young salmon with protection from predators. The aforementioned photos would be useful here.
2. After they have drawn their sheltering habitat, list the shelters they provided on the blackboard/or dry erase board.
3. Discuss how the various shelters might protect young salmon from predators and from currents. If students don't mention them, add and discuss the effects of logs, brush, shadows, camouflage, undercut banks, rocks, aquatic plants, etc.
4. Use the blackboard/dry erase board to list the various predators mentioned by the students and match each to the type of shelter that protects young salmon from these predators.
5. Divide the shelters into "in stream" and "out of stream" columns.
6. Circle the shelters that humans affect the most. Star the ones that we can easily replace.
7. Discuss how shelters would differ in urban streams, mountain streams, slow streams, and fast moving streams.
8. Discuss how shelters might differ in timber, agricultural/rural areas, or urban settings. You could compare what shelters could be provided for fish in their backyards, next to shopping centers, livestock pastures, deep forest, etc.
9. Explore other aspects of damage to the habitat quality caused by removal of different types of shelter. Examples include increased water temperature, erosion, and decreased food as a result of vegetation removal, and streambed erosion as a result of the removal of large rocks.

It is important to carefully and completely read the directions and understand them before beginning the activity.

1. Review the list for Activity #1: the variety of predators and shelters for young salmon.
2. Divide class into four groups. Group 1, made up of 2-4 students, will be the ecologists. Group 2 will be the coho fry living in the stream for a year after hatching. Group 3 will be a group of 3-5 individuals that represent predators (raccoons, larger fish, humans, great blue herons). Group 4 will be various shelters (logs, brush, shadows, aquatic plants, undercut banks). Groups 2 and 4 should be rather large, try having more salmon than shelter and then try having more shelter than salmon.
3. Explain to the ecologists, Group 1, that they will need to be very observant. Have them make separate lists of the people who are portraying predators and shelters from their observations. (You may add more ecologists if the 2-4 students will have a difficult time trying to record data.)
4. Meet with the fry, predator, and shelter characters. Have the predators and shelters assign or draw roles. Discuss how the shelters can portray their roles: an overhanging bush would stand upright with their arms bowed over the stream, aquatic plants would be on their hands and knees so the salmon could crawl under them or hide right next to them. Make sure the salmon fry actors/actresses can identify the different kinds of shelter and understand how a salmon would use the shelters.
5. Identify the boundaries of the activity and spread the rope out to show the location of the stream.
6. Tell the predators that they cannot grab the fry if they are close to the shelters.
7. Ask the ecologists to watch closely so they can identify the kinds of shelters and predators that are being portrayed. Make sure that none of the salmon are taken by predators while they are in a shelter.
8. Encourage the students to really take on their roles with fish faces, predator growls, have the shelters sway with the movement of the river and make sounds of the moving water. Do you have a tape of water that you could play?
9. Let the students know that the role playing stops when you give the signal (blow the whistle?) but don't let them know how long this will be. Place the shelters along the stream, send the salmon fry into the stream, and then turn the predators loose for a 30 second to one minute period. Salmon that are caught will sit down with the ecologists.
10. Ask the ecologists what the different roles were. Ask for suggestions on how students could better portray their roles. Discuss how brush must be shaped to provide shelter, how banks overhang, how rocks provide services (slow down the water, create places of slow water on the downstream side), etc. Help them to visualize the shelters.
11. Start the role playing again. You can start from the beginning and bring all the fry back to life. Stop the action when a few fry are caught.
12. Discuss the following with the students:
    • What happened to the fry that didn't have any shelter?
    • Were there any fry that didn't leave their shelter? What would eventually happen if a real coho salmon fry never left its shelter?
    • Which shelters protected fry from other fish?
    • Which shelters protected fry from land animals?
    • What shelters protected fry from humans?
    • What would the predators do if there weren't any fry to eat?
    • What would the fry do if there weren't any predators to eat them?
13. Set up the role play again, but before you start, explain that you want to clean up the stream and remove logs, bushes, and trees. Have these actors/actresses sit with the ecologists.
14. Discuss the following with the students:
    • Ask the ecologists about the results of the cleanup.
    • Do humans damage streams without knowing it?
    • How can humans help repair stream shelters?
15. Gather the students into a group. Discuss how the game would be played differently if the fry were spawning salmon.
    • Which shelters wouldn't be used by spawning salmon?
    • Which predators should not be a problem for spawning salmon?
    • Which predators can they think of that prey on spawning salmon?
    • What animals eat the spawned out salmon?
    • What would be the most important shelter for a spawning salmon?

(from Clean Water, Streams, and Fish and used with permission from Washington State Office of Environmental Education, Northwest Section, Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction)

WHAT WILL WE DO WITHOUT YOU?

Notes for teachers to share with students:
The dramatic decrease in Chinook between 1990 and 1991 was due to extremely high water, the greatest flood on record. The high water occurred during the time the eggs were incubating; eggs were scoured out of their redds or buried/choked by sediments.

Floods are a natural occurrence.

However, on private land, people are modifying the river and stream banks for flood control (diking, dredging, channelizing, riprapping the banks, removing steamside vegetation). Areas, such as estuaries, sloughs, and wetlands are being filled in for development purposes and can no longer act as sponges to soak up flood waters. Such modifications increase the intensity of floods and, hence, the velocity of the water. In creating such conditions, salmon eggs are washed away or covered up.

The land within North Cascades National Park Service Complex is not being modified as such. For the most part, salmon habitat within the Complex is kept as intact as possible. But this section of the Watershed is only one part, albeit an important part, of the puzzle to save the salmon.

Statistics provided by the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife's Fish Management Program.

alevin: newly hatched salmon with its yolk sac still attached to its body

anadromous fish: fish that spend part of their lives in fresh water, some in salt water, and then mate and produce offspring in fresh water. Salmon are anadromous fish.

biodiversity (biological diversity): the variety of life on Earth. It refers to the genetic diversity within a species, the variety of the species themselves, and the varieties of ecosystems. The greater the diversity or variety there is in a system, the greater the strength and stability the system has over the long run; diversity strengthens the potential of a population to cope with, or respond to, changes in the environment.

carnivore: an organism that eats only meat. The gray wolf and salmon are examples of carnivores.

crustacean: small animals such as shrimp, crabs, and barnacles which usually live in the water and breathe through gills. They have a hard outer shell and legs with joints.

ecosystem: includes all the organisms of an area, their environment, and the linkages and interactions between them; all parts of an ecosystem are interrelated. The fundamental unit in ecology, containing both organisms and non-living environments, each influencing the properties of the other and both necessary for the maintenance of life. A complete, interacting system of living organisms and non-living elements; the home places of all living things.

endangered species: a species with so few living members that it will soon become extinct (see definition below) unless measures are begun to slow its loss.

estuary: the place where fresh water and salt water meet.

extinct: complete disappearance of a species from Earth; they once lived on Earth but have died out.

fingerling: a young salmon, living in fresh water, that eats snails, worms, freshwater shrimp, amphibian larvae, fish eggs, and young fish. At this stage of life, the young salmon move downstream to the estuary.

fry: a stage in a young salmon's life after it looses it yolk sac and begins feeding on zooplankton, crustaceans, and insects.

habitat: a place where a plant or animal lives, that provides seasonal or year round food, water, shelter, and space.

herbivore: an organism that eats only plants. An elk is an example of an herbivore.

migration: to move from one area to another. This movement is connected with a changing of season and the availability of food.

omnivore: an organism that eats a combination of plants and animals. Black bears and grizzly bears are examples of omnivores.

pool: a portion of a stream where the current is slow, often with deeper water than surrounding areas and with smooth surface texture. Pools often occur above and below riffles and generally are formed around stream bends or obstructions such as logs, root wads, or boulders. Pools provide important feeding and resting areas for fish.

population: all the organisms that make up a specific group or occur in a specific habitat.

predator: an organism that captures and feeds on parts or all of an organism of another species. Lynx are predators of snowshoe hares.

redd: the underwater gravel nest of spawning salmon. The female salmon create this nest by swishing some gravel away and making a depression in the gravel. This is where the female deposits her eggs.

riffle: relatively shallow section of a stream or river with rapid current and surface broken by gravel, rubble, or boulders.

riparian area: area with distinctive soil and vegetation between a stream or other body of water and the adjacent upland; includes wetlands and those portions of flood plains and valley bottoms that support riparian vegetation.

salmonoid: belonging to the family Salmonidae, which includes the salmon, trout, and whitefishes.

smolt: young salmon migrating to the ocean and undergoing biological changes to enable them to move from fresh water to salt water.

species: a population or series of populations of organisms that can interbreed freely with each other but not with members of other species.

threatened species: a species that is not yet endangered (see definition above) but show populations are heading in that direction.

turbidity: the condition of a body of water that contains suspended materials such as clay or silt particles, dead organisms, or small living plants and animals.

viable population: a population that is regarded as having the estimated numbers and distribution of reproductive individuals to ensure that its continued existence is well distributed in that area.

watershed: a geographic region within which water drains into a particular river, stream, or body of water. The highest ground around the watershed forms its boundaries.

weir: a fence of brush or stakes or other materials built in a stream for catching fish.

zooplankton: floating, often microscopic aquatic animals.

The following is a partial resource list that may be useful in searching for more information about the North Cascades Ecosystem, the Skagit River Watershed, and the finned beings whose presence within this area is a gift.

Biological Diversity:

Biological Diversity Makes A World of Difference: A curriculum for teachers and interpreters
National Park Service/National Parks and Conservation Association, Minnesota Environmental Education Board Conserving Greater Yellowstone
Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative
Jackson WY
Copies may be obtained from Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, PO Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 or 307-733-6856

Ghost Bears: Exploring the Biodiversity Crisis by R. Edward Grumbine
Island Press
Washington, DC 1992
$25.00

Wilderness Management by John C. Hendee, George H. Stankey, and Robert C. Lucas
North American Press. 1990

Eagles:

Return of the Eagle by Greg Breining
Falcon Press Publishing Co., Inc
Helena, MT 1994

SkySpirit. The American Bald Eagle by Michael Furtman
NorthWord Press, Inc.
Minocqua, WI 1994
$19.95

The American Eagle with Cynthia Black, ed.
Beyond Words Publishing, Inc
Hillsboro, OR. 1994
$24.95

Zoobooks: Eagles by John Bonnett Wexo
Wildlife Education Limited
San Diego, CA 1993
$2.75

Native Americans:

Drummers and Dreamers by Click Relander
Caxton Printers, Ltd.
United States 1986
$9.95

Giving Voice to Bear. Native American Myths, Rituals, and Images of the Bear by David Rockwell
Key Porter Books
Toronto, Ontario, Canada 1991

Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest by Ella E. Clark
University of California Press
Berkeley, CA 1953
$14.95

Keepers of the Night. Native American Stories and Nocturnal Activities for Children by Michael J. Caduto and Joseph Bruchac
Fulcrum Publishing
Golden, CO 1994
$14.95

Native American Animal Stories by Joseph Bruchac
Fulcrum Publishing
Golden, CO 1992
$12.95

North Cascades National Park Service Complex:

A Field Guide to the Cascades & Olympics by Stephen R. Whitney
The Mountaineers
Seattle, WA 1983
$18.95

Cascade-Olympic Natural History by Dan Matthews
Raven Editions
Portland, OR 1988
$22.50

North Cascades National Park: The Story Behind the Scenery by Saul Weisberg
K.C. Publications
Las Vegas, NV 1988
$7.95

North Cascades Official National Park Handbook
Division of Publications, National Park Service
Washington, DC 1994
$7.95

Salmon:

Clean Water, Streams, and Fish by Wendy Borton, Lavonne Bucher, Claire Dyckman , Art Johnson, and Bill Way
Washington State Office of Environmental Education, NW Section

Discovering Salmon: a learning and activity book by Nancy Field & Sally Machlis
Dog-Eared Publications
Middleton, WI 1996
$4.95

Field Guide to the Pacific Salmon by Robert Steelquist
Sasquatch Books
Seattle, WA 1992
$5.95

The Life Cycle of Salmon: ocean related curriculum activities
Pacific Science Center, 1980
200 Second Ave. North, Seattle WA
206-443-2925 education services

Small Streams and Salmonid: A Handbook for Water Quality Studies with Claire Dyckman & Stan Garrod, eds.
Washington Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1980

Watersheds:

Clean Water, Streams, and Fish
Wendy Borton, Lavonne Bucher, Claire Dyckman , Art Johnson, Bill Way
Washington State Office of Environmental Education, NW Section

Sharing the Skagit: an educator's guide to the Skagit River Watershed
North Cascades Institute
Sedro-Woolley, WA 98284
Copies may be purchased from North Cascades Institute 360-856-5700 extension 209

Wilderness:

Living with Mountains: A Guide For Learning and Teaching About Mountain Landscapes
North Cascades Institute, 1991
Copies may be purchased from North Cascades Institute 360-856-5700 extension 209

North Cascades National Park: A Living Classroom
North Cascades Institute, 1996
Copies may be purchased from North Cascades Institute 360-856-5700 extension 209

Teaching for Wilderness: A Guide For Learning and Teaching About Wilderness & Wild Lands
North Cascades Institute, 1991
Copies may be purchased from North Cascades Institute 360-856-5700 extension 209

Wilderness Management by John C. Hendee, George H. Stankey, and Robert C. Lucas
North American Press. 1990
$40.00

Additional Resources:

An Activity Guide for Teachers: Everglades National Park
Everglades National Park
PO Box 279
Homestead, FL 32399-1400

Creature Features:

Olympic National Park
Port Angeles, WA
This curricula is part of Olympic National Park's environmental education program. Teachers may borrow the curricula and its corresponding traveling trunk by contacting the Park. Olympic National Park, 600 East Park Ave., Port Angeles, WA 98362 or 360-452-4501

The Living Forest: A Curriculum Guide to the Lowland Forests of Olympic National Park
Olympic National Park
Port Angeles, WA
This curricula is part of Olympic National Park's environmental education program. Teachers may borrow the curricula and its corresponding traveling trunk by contacting the Park. Olympic National Park, 600 East Park Ave., Port Angeles, WA 98362 or 360-452-4501

WOW! The Wonders of Wetlands
Environmental Concern Inc., 1993
PO Box P, St. Michaels MD 21663
410-745-9620