Golden Spike Cultural Landscape Report

Construction Methods and Specifications

The proposed route for the new railroad passed through nearly 1,800 miles of land claimed primarily by the federal government and by various American Indian tribes. Most of this land was still in the public domain, and the government addressed its proposed uses in the development of a set of specifications that were defined in Section 2 of the Railway Act of 1862. In these specifications, Congress "granted the right of way and the privilege of taking materials from the public lands for the construction of the road and of the telegraph line; also in alternate sections, on each side of the road, twelve thousand eight hundred acres of land per mile" (The Union Pacific Railroad from Omaha Nebraska across the Continent — Its Construction, Resources, Earnings, and Prospects 1867:1). From the sale of these lands, the railroads could also further finance their construction and encourage settlement of the West.

Numerous contracts were awarded to a variety of individuals as well as to established construction companies in order to furnish the supplies needed to keep the crews working along the line. The majority of the supplies were hauled from the east or west coast by rail and then transported to the staging areas and supply camps by wagon train. The need for crews to have a continuous supply of railroad ties and poles for the telegraph line seemed to be one of the most critical factors because work could proceed no further once these supplies were no longer available to the work crews.

The quality and overall durability of the construction of the railroad was a concern of many from the outset. In response to requests from professionals as well as from the general public, Congress appointed a special commission to solicit input from the professional community regarding the development of construction specifications for the Pacific Railroad project. These specifications were presented in a report, dated February 24, 1866 and entitled Report of Board Convened to Determine on a Standard for Construction of the Pacific Railroad. The report described the specifications that were required for the various elements of construction. One of the problems with the government's system of checks and balances regarding review, and approval, of the 20-mile sections of railroad was that the specifications did not have to be met prior to government approval. As explained in the report:

. . . the board have endeavored to make such a standard as will secure a good track without retarding the progress, and advise that every step of the work be made with a view to ultimate perfection. Thus, while the board deem it essential that the work shall be thoroughly ballasted, and all the bridges provided with masonry piers and abutments, yet, knowing that the high embankments will require some time to settle before the track is finally adjusted, and that in many cases, both ballast and stone for masonry must be brought by rail, they have thought best not to make the acceptance of any section contingent on the completion of its masonry and ballasting, but prefer that such parts of the road be accepted in case this work shall have been commenced and is progressing vigorously on the preceding sections [Report of Board Convened to Determine on a Standard for Construction of the Pacific Railroad...February 24, 1866 (Construction Report, 1866):3].

Specific aspects of construction are stipulated in this report. Regarding embankments and excavations, it provided that:

In all parts of the main line of road or branches, embankments should not be less than fourteen feet wide at the grade line. Excavations, if the cuts are lengthy, should be twenty-six feet wide, and in shorter cuts, at least twenty-four feet; thus leaving in all cases room for continuous side ditches of ample depth and width, so as to secure that most essential requisite, a well-drained road-bed. Rock excavations should not be less than sixteen feet wide, and all tunnels should be excavated for a double track. Slopes of earth embankments should be one and a half base to one rise [Construction Report, 1866:11].

With respect to mechanical structures, the report advised that:

Culverts and abutments for bridges and drains should be of stone, whenever a durable article can be obtained within a reasonable distance — say from five to eight miles, depending upon circumstances; provided that temporary trestles may be adopted upon assurances, to the satisfaction of the commissioners, that stone abutments will be substituted immediately after the line shall be opened, so that stone can be transported thereon. But if good stone be too remote, then hard-burned brick or wooden trestle work may be adopted. The wood to be of the most durable character the country will afford; and the wood or brick to be replaced by stone when that material can be conveyed conveniently by rail. Bridges of stone, or iron or wood, (such as the Howe truss, or other equally good structure,) should be used at the discretion of the company [Construction Report, 1866:11].

Regarding ballasting, it explained that:

A railroad cannot be considered complete until it is well ballasted. If composed of gravel or broken stone it should be from 12 to 24 inches thick, depending on the lower material. In view of the settling of new embankments, which require time and rains before ballasting cam be properly placed, and also in view of the number of miles required by the law to be constructed annually, the perfect finish of the road-bed in this respect must be progressive and the work of time. Yet it is the opinion of the board that such work of perfecting the ballast must proceed as usual on first-class railroads; otherwise subsequent sections should not be accepted, because the whole work is not then being carried forward as a great Pacific railroad, such as the law contemplates [Construction Report, 1866:11].

The report additionally addressed specific features of cross-ties:

Oak or other suitable timber should be used, where it can be obtained with reasonable transportation. When such timber cannot be had for all the ties at reasonable cost, then the best the country affords may be adopted; but if it be cottonwood, or similar soft material, it must be Burnettized or kyanized thoroughly so as to increase its durability. But in all cases the joint tie should be of oak or other suitable timber, the better to hold the spikes at these points. There should be at least 2,400 ties to the mile. They should be eight feet long, six inches thick, and if hewn, six inches on the face [Construction Report, 1866:11-12].

Concerning sidings, the report continued:

The length of side-tracks should be at least six per cent of the line completed, to be increased as the number of passing trains shall demand. Side tracks should also be laid eight feet apart in the clear between the rails [Construction Report, 1866:12].

As the track advanced so too did the telegraph lime. The Evening Bulletin of San Francisco explained the process of building the telegraph line in conjunction with the railroad: "Keeping pace with the track layers was the telegraph construction party, hauling out, and hanging, and insulating the wire, and when the train of offices and houses stood still, connection was made with the operator's office, and business of the road transacted" (Ketterson and Utley 1969:40-41).

A balance in the rhythm of the different work crews was essential to maintain the pace of construction as each crew was dependent on several others. Starting at sunrise, the camp train would send a signal to the supply train, which often pulled as many as 30 cars loaded with materials and supplies. The supply train would move down the track delivering the ties, rails, spikes, bolts, telegraph poles, wire, and other essential supplies for the laborers.

A reporter for the Alta California depicted the process of the Central Pacific work force as construction of the rail proceeded eastward:

The rails, ties and other material are thrown off the train as near to the end of the track as feasible, and then the empty train is drawn back out of the way. At this point the rails are loaded on low flat cars, and hauled by horses to the end of the track. The ties are handled in the same way.

Behind comes the rail gang, who take the rails from the flat cars and lay them on the ties. While they are doing this a man on each side distributes spikes, two to each tie; another distributes splice bars; and a third the bolts and nuts by which the ends of the rails are spliced together. Then comes the spikers, two on each side, to pin the rails to the ties. Two or more men follow to adjust and bolt the splice bars.

As fast as a flat car is unloaded it is turned on its side to allow the loaded cars to pass it. It is then returned to the rails and sent back for another load.

All this time wagons are distributing telegraph poles along the grade. Cross arms are nailed onto them. Another gang working under a foreman of telegraph construction digs the holes for the poles and a third gang erects the poles. It is the aim of this third gang to keep pace with the rail gang. At times lack of wagons make[s] it impossible to keep up the supply of poles and the telegraph gangs, who pride themselves on never letting the track get ahead of them, utilize sage brush, barrels, ties — surreptitiously taken from the track — or anything else that would keep the wire off the ground until the supply of poles again equal[s] the demand.

Then comes a wagon bearing a reel of wire which unrolls as the wagon goes ahead. As the wire uncoils, it is carried up on the poles and made fast to the insulators.

Back of the track builders follows a gang with the seven or more ties necessary to complete the foundation for each rail. These are put into position and spiked by another gang, which also level up the track and leave it ready for the ballasters [Alta California, Nov. 9, 1868, quoted in Kraus 1969b:220-221].

At day's end, the camp train moved to the end of the track, workers hungrily ate their supper, and a wire was sent to notify Sacramento of the number of completed miles of track.

Eastern reporters traveled west to cover the progress of the Union Pacific Railroad. One from the New York Tribune observed that "the astonishing rapidity with which this railroad has been built has become the subject of general wonder throughout the country. Nothing like it has been seen before." Vouching for the quality of construction, this reporter noted further that approximately 2,650 ties were laid to the mile and that the steel rails were joined by fishplates (metal plates that held abutting rails in alignment) to make a "continuous rail." The Tribune reporter also stated that water courses were "spanned by substantial Howe truss bridges or by culverts of timber," which were to be "at once replaced by solid masonry" and the road bed was "ballasted with broken stone and disintegrated granite," which was brought from the Black Hills. Having traveled from Cheyenne to Omaha, the reporter clocked the train at averaging just over 34 miles per hour and found the road to be "remarkably smooth." (Union Pacific 1868:11).

A reporter from Philadelphia captured the rhythm of the Union Pacific track-laying teams:

Track-laying on the Union Pacific is a science, and we, pundits of the Far East, stood upon that embankment, only about a thousand miles this side of sunset, and backed westward before that hurrying corps of sturdy operatives with a mingled feeling of amusement, curiosity, and profound respect. . . . It is an Anvil Chorus that those sturdy sledges are playing across the plains. It is in triple time, three strokes to a spike. There are ten spikes to a rail, four hundred rails to a mile, eighteen hundred miles to San Francisco. That's the sum, what is the quotient? Twenty-one million times are those sledges to be swung — twenty-one million times are they to come down with their sharp punctuation, before the great work of modern America is complete! [Union Pacific 1868:9].