NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Fauna of the National Parks of the United States No. 2 Wildlife Management in the National Parks

PART II
PRESENT STATUS OF NATIONAL PARKS WILDLIFE AND THE RESTORATION PROGRAM

REPORT ON THE CURRENT STATUS OF LARGE
MAMMALS IN THE NATIONAL PARKS
By GEORGE M. WRIGHT and BEN H. THOMPSON

Given herewith is a brief report on the current. status of national parks' mammals, with particular emphasis on restoration plans for those forms concerning which some apprehension is felt, either in the parks or in the country at large.

BISON

Bison always have held a unique position among the park animals because of the intensive management necessary to prevent their extermination. Now that their perpetuation is assured, radical changes will be made in the buffalo program.

In 1900, when a census was taken of the Yellowstone Park herd, 29 were counted and 10 more were estimated, or about a total of 40. In 1902, Congress appropriated $15,000 to provide for the development of a Yellowstone bison herd. A semidomesticated herd was started with 3 bulls from the Goodnight herd of Texas, and 18 cows obtained from Conrad Allard in western Montana. It is thought that the wild and tame herds have become one. According to Figgins' speciation, we conclude that the present Yellowstone bison is probably a hybrid of Bison bison bison from Texas, Bison bison septemtrionalis from Montana, and Bison bison haningtoni, possibly the mountain form.

The original nucleus of 21 introduced, in addition to the remaining natives, has produced a total of 2,279 since 1902. Two hundred and ninety-seven have been shipped alive. Six hundred and eighty-two have been slaughtered for meat. Forty-eight outlaws and cripples have been destroyed, and there have been 124 recorded losses from disease.

Disease loss has been due to hemorrhagic septicemia. Outbreaks of this disease caused a. loss of 22 buffalo in 1911; 53 in 1919, and 49 in 1923. Treatment is by vaccination with bacterin provided by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry. A supply is kept on hand in case of further outbreaks and hemorrhagic septicemia is no longer feared. It is estimated that Bang's disease (contagious abortion) affects from 38 to 43 percent of mature animals in the herd. Studies are being conducted to learn more about this disease and its possible effects on the herd. During the 1934 round-up, 84 cows and 4 bulls were tested and branded for identification. Sixty-five percent of the cows and all 4 bulls reacted positively to the test. The same individuals will be observed next winter to determine prevalence and progress of infection, effect on reproduction, period required to attain individual immunity, if any, and probable general effect on the future of the herd.

There are now 1,128 bison in Yellowstone. It is proposed to reduce the herd to 1,000 owing to the declining carrying capacity of the range with ultimate intent to stabilize it at a number commensurate with normal range production. This situation is complicated because of utilization of this range jointly by wapiti, moose, deer, mountain sheep, pronghorn, and beaver.

Today the bison of Yellowstone enter upon the third, and it is hoped the final period. In the first period, the bison was practically exterminated. The second period, extending from 1902 to 1929, was devoted to building up a new herd by every means at human command. The third period, which now becomes possible because the park has an adequate herd and the bison has been saved from danger of extinction generally, will be devoted to the task of returning the Yellowstone herd to the wild state insofar as the inherent limitations of the park will permit.

To this end, castration of bull calves will be discontinued and the existing steers culled out as rapidly as possible. Calves will be permitted to run with the cows through the winter instead of being corralled and fed as formerly. Instead of there being a fall and a spring round-up only one will be held in the future. Gradual reestablishment of the normal sex ratio of 1 to 1 will be sought. This will limit artificial management of the herd to a single round up which will be necessary so long as there is a surplus to slaughter, to winter feeding at the Buffalo Ranch which will be necessary so long as the herd must be held within present park boundaries, and, to disease prevention and cure. When these things are accomplished there will be once again a wild herd of bison in the United States.

In conservation of bison, Yellowstone will always be the most important national park in the United States. Glacier might rank second if the proposal to establish a herd which will summer in the park and winter on the Blackfeet Indian Reservation can be realized. A nucleus, including individuals of both sexes and all ages, would be held in a fenced enclosure of approximately one township on tribal lands in the vicinity of Boulder Creek. They would be held there for a period of 1 year to fix them in the habit of homing in this vicinity and then would be released. The Indians would be owners of the buffalo, responsible for their care, and would be entitled to the surplus. The Indian council, suspicious that the real purpose is to deprive them of more of their lands in order to extend Glacier Park, has been unwilling to accept the plan as yet.

The only other bison to be found in the national parks consist of small exhibits at Wind Cave (maintained by the Biological Survey) at Colorado National Monument, and at Platt. All of these are under fence. They serve a useful purpose in affording to local visitors, who might not otherwise have this experience, the opportunity of seeing bison. They are also additional safety nuclei in case of disaster to the large herds. Under the President's emergency program the paddock at Platt has been moved to a new location and increased in size so that the herd can be increased from the 5 formerly accommodated to a maximum of 30.

Figure 19. – Buffalo round-up, Yellowstone National Park. Instead of there being a fall and spring round-up, only one will be held in the future. (Photograph taken December 6, 1932, at Buffalo Ranch. Wildlife Division No. 2889.)

WAPITI

The national parks have played an important role in the conservation of three forms of elk native to the United States. The other varieties once found within our borders, including the Arizona wapiti (Cervus merriami) and whatever species originally inhabited the territory east of the Mississippi, became extinct without benefit of national parks protection. While the National Park Service does not feel that elk in any of the parks are in immediate danger of being exterminated at present, there are many acute problems involving not only the elk themselves but seriously threatening many other animals as well.

The American wapiti (Cervus canadensis canadensis) is native to the three parks in the Rocky Mountains—Glacier, Yellowstone and Rocky Mountain. It is further represented by small bands maintained under fence for exhibition purposes in Wind Cave and Platt National Parks and Colorado National Monument.

Since 1913, 3,007 elk have been shipped from Yellowstone to 24 States for transplanting purposes. An additional 307 have gone to Canada. Yellowstone elk fall into two main divisions, the northern herd wintering on the Yellowstone River drainage both in and out of the park, which is estimated to number 12,000 at present, and the southern herd of approximately 20,000 elk which winters in Jackson Hole under the care of the Biological Survey. The Yellowstone Plateau is the most important summer range of both herds.

The southern elk herd problem is too well known to warrant discussion here. Summer range on the Yellowstone Plateau is adequate for all the elk which utilize it at present, and more.

The northern elk herd today faces the most serious crisis in its history. Because of adverse conditions on the normal wintering grounds at lower elevations outside the park which are now utilized by sheep, cattle, and horses, and because hunting under the present system drives the elk back, almost the entire herd winters inside the park in the Lamar mind Gardiner River districts. This has necessitated resort to artificial feeding, which has proved so much more harmful than beneficial that it must be discontinued as soon as possible.

It should be remembered that approximately 10,000 elk, 1,000 bison, 800 mule deer, 600 antelope, 125 bighorn, and numerous other game animals now pass all of the year except the short summer season on what, under natural conditions, was only a transient spring and fall range.

Let it be emphasized that the Yellowstone winter range must be protected. If this is done, three other important species—mule deer, antelope, and bighorn—can be saved, a fourth, the western white-tailed deer, might be reintroduced, and others, including bison and beaver, will be greatly benefited. All these and others have been more or less sacrificed to the maintenance of the elk herd.

Figure 20. – Product of artificial feeding . . so much more harmful than beneficial that it must be discontinued . . . (Photograph taken May 16, 1932, at Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone. Wildlife Division No. 2137.)

The Rocky Mountain Park elk story is typical of what may be expected wherever elk are reestablished in areas that are limited by lack of winter habitat. Before market hunting days, elk were very abundant in this section of the Rockies. It is believed they were completely exterminated prior to 1900. In 1913 a band of 20 cows and 5 bulls from the Yellowstone elk herd was brought to Estes park. There are now between 350 and 400 elk in the national park area, and more than 2,000 deer. The beginnings of a range problem are evident. Aspen trees on the winter range have been stripped of their bark and reproduction killed. Purshia is being killed out. Sagebrush and ribes are now being taken. Foxtail (Hordeum) is invading. At present the range is being kept under close observation. Fenced quadrates are being constructed to facilitate range study. Last summer Emergency Conservation workers were assigned to the task of pulling up foxtail in an effort to check this exotic in the incipient stages. Some desirable meadow land in Morraine, Horseshoe, and Beaver Brook parks has been added to the park, but there is a very definite limit to what can be done in this direction. When the carrying capacity of the range has been determined, the herd will have to be kept within the indicated limits.

Glacier Park has approximately 1,000 elk, the census for 1933 being 1,290. Thirty-one head were brought in from Yellowstone in 1912. Their condition is constantly precarious because hard winters force them down to their natural wintering ground on the Indian Reservation. The Indians are not bound by any restrictions on hunting. A slaughter occurred a few years ago and may be repeated at any time. Superintendent Scoyen has assiduously devoted himself to the task of interesting the Indians in wildlife preservation in the hope that they will see the advantages of open and closed seasons. A judicious use of game surplus by the Indians of the reservation would be welcomed.

The Roosevelt wapiti (Cervus canadensis occidentalis) is represented in Mount Olympus National Monument by the Olympic herd, which is said to number around 6,000 head at present. Most of the elk summer in the monument. In the 1933 hunting season, the first in 30 years, 157 were taken by hunters. No penalties for poaching were provided until 1927 and enforcement was negligible then. Poaching undoubtedly has been a controlling factor, although the herd has increased in numbers. There is an important winter-range problem. The limited lowland valleys cut off by the sea are occupied by submarginal farms. Therefore, the elk tend to remain higher and in greater concentration upon certain sections of the winter range, a fact which is leading to range deterioration in these areas. In 1932, cougars were hunted and about 30 were killed by the Biological Survey and others. A cougar population may be a necessary adjunct to a healthy elk herd.

The monument was under Forest Service jurisdiction until this year when it was transferred to the National Park Service. This action, as well as the submarginal agricultural lands retirement program and the opening of a hunting season, have all combined to focus attention on the case of the Olympic elk. Several field investigations of this problem are under way, notably, by Mr. O. J. Murie, for the Biological Survey and the National Forest Service, by Mr. M. P. Skinner, representing the Boone and Crocket Club, and by the National Park Service. The Elk Commission has adopted the Olympic elk problem as a major activity. It is expected that satisfactory results in the perpetuation of the Roosevelt elk will be forthcoming.

Yosemite has discharged its duty to help save the dwarf wapiti (Cervus nannodes) from extinction. This small elk was native to the river bottoms in the central valleys of California. It came just about as close to the brink of extinction without going over as any wild species possibly could. The California Academy of Sciences was instrumental in placing a small band in Yosemite Valley in 1921, where these elk were maintained in a paddock and cared for and fed for 12 years at an annual cost to the park of more than $400. On October 20, 1933, the Yosemite herd numbering 27 animals was liberated in Owens Valley, which is part of the watershed controlled by the Water Board of Los Angeles. This is believed to provide an abundant and ideal habitat for the species. There have been no losses so far, and the animals seem entirely at home in their new surroundings.

MOOSE

Moose are hardy. They do not have the herding habit, nor do they migrate to the lowlands in winter. Yellowstone is their present stronghold, with an estimated population of 700 Shiras moose (Alces americana shirasi). Moose studies have been conducted by rangers for several winters. One of the finest wildlife exhibits anywhere in the parks system is the moose show at Willow Park. Here moose can be seen every day in the tourist season by passing motorists and sometimes as many as 10 are in sight at one time.

Figure 21. – Moose in Yellowstone National Park. Here moose can be seen every day in the tourist season by passing motorists . . . (Photograph taken May 20, 1932, at Norris Junction, Yellowstone. Wildlife Division No. 2171.)

Grand Teton National Park estimates approximately 125 moose within its boundaries.

There are some 150 American moose (Alces americana americana) in Glacier. Recent ranger reports have emphasized the fact of their increase, particularly as evidenced by their appearance in hitherto unfrequented valleys. Losses from poaching can never be entirely eliminated until the private ranches of the west side are purchased.

The Alaska moose (Alces gigas) just recently has become a resident member of the Mount McKinley Park fauna. In 1926 moose were casual visitors on the basis of a few that wandered up in the summer from the timbered lowlands. Factors which may have contributed to this change are the recent addition of lands of lower altitude to the park, the cumulative effects of protection, and possibly persecution which may have led them to adopt this high refuge even though living conditions are less favorable.

CARIBOU

Caribou do not find complete sanctuary in any national park.

The barren ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus) continues to be present in Mount McKinley in abundance, the current estimate being 15,000. Since the park caribou take part in the great annual run in central Alaska, which takes them far beyond the park boundaries, their future is bound up with general protective measures for the species. They continue to be threatened as to purity of stock by the presence of the inferior but aggressive imported reindeer.

We have no caribou data for Katmai, where one of the barren ground forms undoubtedly occurs.

Mountain caribou (Rangifer montanus) have a potential status in Glacier, which is located in the southern fringe of their range. Very rarely stragglers into the northwest corner of the park are reported. An investigation was made 2 years ago which resulted in the conclusion that little could be done to make this rare wanderer a secure member of the Glacier fauna.

Isle Royale once had a band of caribou, but it disappeared many years ago.

DEER

Deer are so well represented in the national parks, both as to species and as to numbers, and are generally so secure, that discussion here is limited to a few scattered observations.

If the Big Bend of the Rio Grande proposed park area comes into the national parks system, the Mexican mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus canus), Arizona white-tailed deer (Odocoileus couesi), and fan-tailed deer (Odocoileus texanus) will be added to the parks' fauna. Everglades would bring in the Florida white-tail (Odocoileus osceola). Some individuals of Odocoileus virginianus virginianus were recently transferred from Mount Vernon to Shenandoah. Under protection, this species can be well cared for in Great Smokies. Columbian black-tailed deer are found in all the parks of the Pacific coast, and mule deer in the 15 parks within their native range. The western white-tailed deer is found only in Glacier, where there are approximately 2,000. White-tailed were formerly found in Yellowstone and may be reintroduced there when sufficient range has been procured. In a number of instances there are deer problems involving the adjustment of numbers to the carrying capacity of winter ranges. The National Park Service favors the policy of managing the Kaibab deer herd to permit its gradual increase as the range is brought back to normal productiveness. On the South Rim of the Grand Canyon, water holes for deer are being constructed, and about 60 square miles of range have been fenced to exclude domestic stock. In furtherance of game range studies, fenced quadrates are being constructed in Yosemite, Sequoia, Grand Canyon, Zion, and Mesa Verde, and have already been constructed in Rocky Mountain and Yellowstone.

BIGHORN

The present status of mountain sheep is generally far from satisfactory. Practically nothing is known concerning the factors affecting its status. Intimate studies must be made before there can be a constructive program.

The Dall sheep (Ovis dalli dalli) of Mount McKinley seems to be at a low ebb in cyclical abundance. Previous peaks were in 1906-07, and in 1929. In the latter year, 15,000 were estimated in the park, and there were certainly more than 10,000. The 1933 census gives an estimate of 3,500. Whereas there were many lambs in every band of ewes in 1926, the total lamb count for 1932 was only 357. Obvious factors responsible for this decline in reproduction were bad weather and molestation by wolves and coyotes. Though these cycles of abundance are in themselves a natural phenomenon, man has added so many more hazards that it is easily possible the time may come when recovery is impossible. The only help which can be administered at present is increased protection for the sheep outside the park and control of their natural enemies inside. Coyotes will be eradicated if possible, and permission for a very limited wolf control was given in 1933.

A remnant of the Sierra Nevada bighorn (Ovis canadensis sierrae) persists in the Mount Whitney region of California. If this small nucleus increases, there is hope that its reestablishment in Sequoia and Yosemite can be secured, either by a natural reinvasion or by transplanting.

The Rocky Mountain bighorn (Ovis canadensis canadensis) is now found in Glacier, Yellowstone, Grand Teton, and Rocky Mountain National Parks, the 1933 censuses being 313, 150, 45, and 360, respectively. In Glacier they suffer from poaching and from coyote depredations as a result of feeding to hold them in the park. In Yellowstone they are slowly declining in numbers, and those that remain appear in poor condition. Their resistance to lungworm, scab, and disease in general appears to be low. Unfavorable forage conditions centering in the elk problem are thought to be a main cause. In Rocky Mountain they are thought to be decreasing, and probably will fail to improve unless boundaries are extended to give them better protection from man and domestic sheep.

Little is known concerning the sheep within the rim of Grand Canyon. They are seldom seen. An arbitrary estimate of 200 is given, but there has been no observable increase or decrease in recent years. The recent removal of more than a thousand feral burros may react favorably upon the sheep.

Inclusion of the proposed Big Bend of the Rio Grande and Guadalupe Mountains areas would extend protection to Ovis mexicana and Ovis canadensis texiana, respectively.

PRONGHORN

The American pronghorn, in spite of its importance among large game species, and its great spectacular value, is rather poorly represented in the national parks system. The proposal has been made that a park or monument should be established with antelope as an outstanding feature.

There are between 600 and 700 pronghorn on the overcrowded northern game range of Yellowstone. Although this area can hardly he considered as being within their optimum range, and they are crowded down to the vicinity of Gardiner in winter on an extremely depleted area, they prosper nevertheless. The recent addition to the park below Gardiner will benefit the pronghorn more than any other species concerned.

Petrified Forest National Monument has recently fenced an area of approximately 40 square miles for the express purpose of excluding domestic stock and thereby permitting range improvement for antelope within the monument. It is planned to develop one or two watering places in the monument as further inducement to bring antelope within its protection.

A herd of 25 is artificially maintained under unfavorable conditions in the Indian Gardens down in Grand Canyon. It is expected that this experiment will be discontinued as soon as suitable range can he procured in Grand Canyon National Monument, where preparations are being made for the reintroduction of this species. There a fence to exclude domestic stock from the antelope range already has been constructed, but the range will require several years to recover from its overgrazed condition.

Figure 22. – A herd of antelope is artficially maintained . . . in the Indian Gardens down in Grand Canyon. . . (Photograph taken October 31, 1930, Indian Gardens, Grand Canyon. Wildlife Division No. 1905.)

Figure 23. – . . . under unfavorable conditions, i.e. feeding troughs. (Photograph taken June 1, 1933, Indian Gardens, Grand Canyon. Wildlife Division No. 3298.)

MOUNTAIN GOAT

The mountain goat can be dismissed with brief comment because its status is satisfactory from every standpoint.

The Montana mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus missoulae) is found in Glacier Park. There are more than 800 and the number is increasing. They do not leave the park at any season and are benefited further by the protection afforded by Waterton Lakes Park in Canada, which adjoins on the north. Goats frequent the higher chalets—particularly Sperry Chalet, where they are the major attraction—and are frequently seen by motorists crossing Logan Pass.

Four hundred cascade mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus americanus) are safe within the boundaries of Mount Rainier. All reports agree that they are increasing.

The Columbian mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus columbiae) occurs in Glacier Bay National Monument. The proposed increase of this area to approximately double the present size would provide for their permanent protection.

Mountain goats do well because they remain within the protecting park boundaries the year round, because their chosen terrain is so rugged as to be protected against the influences of civilization within the park, and because they are adapted to survive under the most rigorous climatic conditions.

BLACK BEAR

Since the black-bear problem is no longer one of saving the bears but of establishing a mutually satisfactory relationship between bears and humans in the parks, they may be dismissed briefly here. There are about 2,000 black bears in 13 parks, the majority of them in Glacier, Mount Rainier, Rocky Mountain, Sequoia, Yellowstone, and Yosemite.

GRIZZLY AND BROWN BEARS

The national parks hold out the last hope for the grizzly bear in the United States proper. It is entirely gone in the parks of the Pacific coast and southwest regions, and from Rocky Mountain National Park. The 1933 big game census gives 112 grizzlies for Glacier and 260 for Yellowstone. Unless present conditions radically change, grizzly bears will survive indefinitely in these two parks.

The national parks play a minor part in the conservation of brown and grizzly bears in Alaska. Now that prospecting is prohibited in Mount McKinley, bears are increasing. Joseph S. Dixon observed 29 Toklat grizzlies (Ursus toklat) in 1932, as against 3 in 1926. The tundra brown bear (Ursus kidderi tundrensis) also is present.

There should be extensive areas in Alaska devoted to the complete protection of the brown hear, largest of all living carnivores. Enlargement of Glacier Bay National Monument would be of material assistance to the brown hear.

COUGAR

Cougars have almost disappeared. Their absence is responsible for many of our game problems. There is encouragement in the fact that in recent years they have been given complete protection within the national parks. However, they range widely and are persecuted so persistently outside the parks that their future status, even within the parks, is decidedly questionable.

WOLF

There are probably no wolves today in the national parks of the United States outside of Alaska. The loss is lamentable and there is little likelihood that it can be remedied.

The Mount McKinley timber wolf (Canis pambasileus) has been increasing during the past few years its value is thoroughly appreciated by the National Park Service, even though the necessity of some control during 1933 was admitted on the basis that the mountain sheep of the park were in need of relief.

COYOTE

In the national parks, as everywhere else, mere mention of the coyote is sufficient to start an argument. Coyotes are present in all western parks and recently have become established in Mount McKinley. In all probability they have extended their altitudinal range in many areas. Indications lead us to believe that they are becoming more abundant than formerly in places where wolves have been exterminated.

Coyotes are given equal protection with other species except in Mount McKinley, where they are plainly exotic and hence are condemned, and in Yellowstone, where they are controlled by shooting in limited numbers over certain areas. In summer they are a common sight along the loop highway and yield to no other animal in visitor appeal. The National Park Service policy is that judicious control of coyotes by proper selective methods may be exercised in any park where it is demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Director and the Wildlife Division that coyotes are endangering the survival of some other species.

MUSTELIDS

Most members of this group are secure in the national parks. There are two exceptions.

Both fisher and wolverine are in desperate straits generally, although the Mount McKinley wolverine (Gulo hylaeus) is more abundant today than it was 10 years ago. Even though the mountain sheep population of Mount McKinley is at a low ebb—and evidence seems to indicate that wolverines prey upon them—no control of the wolverines has been permitted. Mount Rainier still harbors a few common wolverines (Gulo luscus), and Yosemite and Sequoia have each a small number of the southern wolverine (Gulo luteus). Wolverines are gone from the Rocky Mountain parks.

Though fisher are credited to Glacier, Yellowstone, Mount Olympus, Mount Rainier, and Yosemite, definite evidence of their presence today is lacking except in Sequoia and Mount Olympus.

Little can be done for wolverine and fisher, and the other fur bearers as well, unless park boundaries can be extended in critical areas or unless "buffer areas" in which no trapping is permitted can be established around the parks.

RODENTS

For as much value as there may be in any sweeping statement, it may be said that park rodents are prospering. It would be impossible to go into detail in this brief survey.

Beaver have increased encouragingly in recent years. Rocky Mountain and Yellowstone are their strongholds. In both parks their range is endangered through the destruction of aspen and willow on the overbrowsed elk winter ranges.

The gray squirrel population is slowly building up in Yosemite and Sequoia.

Kaibab and Abert squirrels at Grand Canyon are in excellent condition. The placing of White Sands, Great Sand Dunes, amid Death Valley on national-monument status adds many rare, specialized small rodents to the protected list.

CONCLUSION

The National Park Service believes that its wildlife resources are sounder today than at any time since its establishment. Large-game species, with the important exception of mountain sheep, have made marked improvement. Predators at last have attained equal protection with other forms. The outlook for some small fur bearers, however, is not promising.

The restoration program includes:

1. Reintroduction of extirpated species, namely, Mexican bighorn (Ovis mexicana) in Mesa Verde National Park, Sierra Nevada bighorn (Ovis canadensis sierrae) in Yosemite National Park, plains white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus macrourus) in Yellowstone National Park, plains white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus macrourus) in Shenandoah, bison in Glacier National Park, Oregon antelope (Antilocapra americana oregona) in Grand Canyon National Monument, Merriam turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) in Mesa Verde National Park, and a number of others when suitable range has been procured.

2. Range management to restore depleted habitats in Yellowstone, Rocky Mountain National Park, Bandelier National Monument, Petrified Forest National Monument, Grand Canyon National Park, Grand Canyon National Monument, Sequoia National Park, and Yosemite National Park.

3. Assistance, through special protection of one kind or another, to rare species, namely:

(a) The fur bearers in all the national parks, demanding boundary extensions and surrounding buffer areas in which there should be no trapping or predatory animal control except as permitted by the National Park Service;

(b) Bighorn in Glacier National Park, Grand Canyon National Monument, Yellowstone National Park, Grand Teton National Park, Rocky Mountain National Park, Zion National Park, Death Valley National Monument, amid Sequoia National Park;

(c) Pronghorn in Yellowstone and Grand Canyon National Parks and the environs of Petrified Forest National Monument;

(d) Trumpeter swan and sandhill crane in Yellowstone National Park and vicinity; and

(e) Various species of grouse in several of the national parks.

4. Complete eradication of poaching.

5. Protection of wildlife against the harmful effects of civilization within the national parks. The ramifications of this problem are too endless to detail here.

6. Studies of diseases and parasites, particularly as affecting the ungulates of Yellowstone National Park; life history and food habit studies in all parks.

7. Attempted eradication of exotic species, such as the coyote in Mount McKinley National Park and the opossum in Sequoia National Park.

8. Numerous other management measures necessary to preserve primitive or wilderness conditions within the national parks and monuments.

The chief needs may be summarized as follows:

1. Strengthening of the internal system of wildlife administration in the parks in order that the maximum benefits from wildlife management can be secured.

2. Rounding out of the national parks system to include outstanding biotic association not now represented.

3. Regulation of transplanting and restocking practices throughout the nation to protect the purity of each strain in its native territory.

4. Revision of boundaries to follow natural faunal barriers, and inclusion within the parks of critical seasonal ranges which are necessary to the welfare of park game.

(Read May 8, 1934, at the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mammalogists, American Museum of Natural History, New York City.)