GLACIER BAY Land Reborn: A History of Administration and Visitor Use in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve

¹ Canyon de Chelly and Navajo national monuments in Arizona were two significant exceptions in the matter of land title. Indians have claimed treaty hunting rights in several national parks, including Mount Rainier, Glacier, Grand Canyon, and Olympic, but in no instance outside Alaska was hunting by Indians in a national park area given sanction by the NPS. Indian-NPS relations in the continental United States are the subject of a work in progress by Michael F. Turek and Robert H. Keller, Jr.

¹ John Muir, Travels in Alaska (Boston, 1915), p.152. Muir juxtaposed this natural beauty with the dirtiness of Alaska towns in his journal. Fort Wrangell was "squalid" and "boggy." Sitka had "a rusty, decaying look...cannon lying in the streets sinking like boulders in mud; dirty Indians loafing about; everybody of any character away at the mines or out a-fishing." Linnie Marsh Wolfe, ed., John of the Mountains: The Unpublished Journals of John Muir (Boston, 1938), pp.257, 259. See also Michael P. Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison, Wisconsin, 1984), pp.182-190.

² Wolfe, ed., John of the Mountains, p.315.

³ Walter R. Goldschmidt and Theodore H. Haas, "Possessory Rights of the Natives of Southeastern Alaska," unpublished file report at Sitka National Historic Park (SITK), 1946, Section D, p.4.

⁴ Muir, Travels in Alaska, pp.146, 150; S. Hall Young, Alaska Days with John Muir (New York, 1915), p.99.

⁵ Muir, Travels in Alaska, pp.142, 146, 263. On Tlingit superstitions, Wolfe, ed., John of the Mountains, pp.272-273.

⁶ Young, Alaska Days with John Muir, p.171.

⁷ Charles W. Smythe, "Tlingit and Haida Tribal Status: A Report of the Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska," February 1989, p.9, National Park Service Alaska Regional Office, (ARO), copy provided to author by Tim Cochrane.

⁸ The Tlingit and Haida Indians v. The United States, Court of Claims (1959), p.367; John R. Swanton, "Social Condition, Beliefs, and Linguistic Relationship of the Tlingit Indians," in Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1908), p.398; Julia Averkieva, "The Tlingit Indians," in North American Indians in Historical Perspective (New York, 1971), p.326.

⁹ The Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska v. The United States, Court of Claims, 1959, p.367.

¹⁰ Swanton, "Social Condition, Beliefs, and Linguistic Relationship of the Tlingit Indians," in Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1905, p.399; Frederica De Laguna, "Tlingit" in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 7 (Washington, 1990), p.227.

¹¹ Walter R. Goldschmidt and Theodore H. Haas, "Possessory Rights of the Natives of Southeastern Alaska," unpublished file report at SITK, 1946, Section D.

¹² John F. Chapman to Regional Director, June 29, 1979, GLBA, administrative files, file A14. The ethnologist John R. Swanton recorded what appears to be a Kagwantan version of this legend in Wrangell in 1904. See Swanton's "Tlingit Myths and Texts," in Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 39 (Washington, 1909), pp.337-338.

¹³ Robert E. Ackerman, The Archeology of the Glacier Bay Region, Southeastern Alaska (Pullman, Washington, 1968), pp.85-86.

¹⁴ Robert F. Schroeder and Matthew Kookesh, "Subsistence Harvest and Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the Effects of Forest Management in Hoonah, Alaska," Technical Paper No. 142 (Juneau, 1990), p.22-25; William S. Cooper, "The Recent Ecological History of Glacier Bay, Alaska: II. The Present Vegetation Cycle," Ecology, vol.4, no.3 (July 1923): pp.223-224.

¹⁵ George A. Hall, "The Stories of Glacier Bay Collected at Hoonah, Alaska," unpublished file report at SITK, July 1960, n.p.; Nora Marks Dauenhauer and Richard Dauenhauer, eds., Haa Shuka, Our Ancestors: Tlingit Oral Narratives (Seattle, 1987), pp.245-261 and 261-293; quotation on p.285.

¹⁶ Statements by Albert Jackson, George Carteete, Frank O. Williams, Albert Greenewald, Mrs. Lonnie Houston, Mrs. Oscar Williams, and Mrs. Eliza Lawrence, typescript in Alaska Historical Library (AHL), Curry-Weissbrodt Papers, MS 43, roll 20. Quotation by Mrs. Houston.

¹⁷ Julia Averkieva, "The Tlingit Indians," in North American Indians in Historical Perspective (New York, 1971), p.319.

¹⁸ C.E.S. Wood, "Among the Thlinkits in Alaska," The Century Magazine, vol.24 (1882): pp.328-329.

¹⁹ The Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska v. The United States, Court of Claims (1959), p.372.

²⁰ Frederica de Laguna, Under Mount Saint Elias: The History and Culture of the Yakutat Tlingit (Washington, 1972), p.824.

²¹ Tlingit attitudes are discussed in De Laguna, Under Mount Saint Elias, pp.374 and 824; an example of a conservationist interpretation is Captain L.A. Beardslee's description of Hoonah seal and sea otter hunting in Senate, Reports of Captain L.A. Beardslee, U.S. Navy, Relative to Affairs in Alaska, and the Operations of the U.S.S. Jamestown under his command, while in the waters of that territory, 47th Cong. 1st sess., 1882, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 71, pp.174-175. Morgan Sherwood analyzes Native hunting in Big Game in Alaska: A History of Wildlife and People, (New Haven, 1981), pp.103-116.

²² U.S. Department of the Treasury, Seal and Salmon Fisheries and General Resources of Alaska, vol.2 (Washington, 1898), p.441.

²³ J. Alden Loring, "Notes on the Destruction of Animal Life in Alaska," New York Zoological Society Sixth Annual Report (New York, 1902), p.142.

²⁴ Senate, Reports of Captain L.A. Beardslee, U.S. Navy, Relative to Affairs in Alaska, and the Operations of the U.S.S. Jamestown under his command, while in the waters of that territory, 47th Cong. 1st sess., 1882, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 71, p.185.

²⁵ Calvin Martin, Keepers of the Game: Indian-Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade (Berkeley, 1978), p. 3.

²⁶ Ted C. Hinckley, "The Canoe Rocks--We Do Not Know What Will Become of Us," Western Historical Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 3 (July 1970): pp. 275-276.

²⁷ De Laguna, Under Mount Saint Elias, p.384.

²⁸ In 1880, for example, Hoonah Tlingits asked for the Americans' help in preventing "English Indians" (provisioned by the British at Fort Simpson) from invading their sea otter grounds. Otherwise, they warned, war might result between the two Indian groups. Senate, Reports of Captain L.A. Beardslee, U.S. Navy, Relative to Affairs in Alaska, and the Operations of the U.S.S. Jamestown under his command, while in the waters of that territory, 47th Cong. 1st sess., 1882, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 71, p.57.

²⁹ Quoted in T. H. Watkins, "The Perils of Expedience," Wilderness, vol.54, no.191 (January 1990): p.47.

³⁰ Frank O. Williams statement and Albert Greenewald statement, AHL, Curry-Weissbrodt Papers, MS 43, roll 20.

³¹ John Burroughs et al., Alaska: The Harriman Expedition, 1899 (New York, 1986), pp.158-165.

³² C.E.S. Wood, "Among the Thlinkits in Alaska," p.332.

³³ Muir, Travels in Alaska, pp.142-143.

³⁴ Eliza R. Scidmore, "Bartlett Bay and the Hooniahs," photocopy of article circa 1900, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, library collection, p.128.

³⁵ Richard A. Cooley, Politics of Conservation: The Decline of the Alaska Salmon (New York, 1963), pp.72-73.

³⁶ Senate, Conditions and Needs of the Natives of Alaska, by Lieutenant G.T. Emmons, 58th Cong., 3rd sess., 1905, Senate Doc. No. 106, p.13.

³⁷ Economic and technological changes in Tlingit commercial fishing from the early twentieth century to the 1930s are described in Senate, Committee on Indian Affairs, Survey of Conditions of the Indians in the United States. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Indian Affairs. Part 36: Alaska, 74th Cong., 2nd sess., 1939, p.19739.

³⁸ W.T. Lopp, "Native Labor in the Alaska Fisheries," Pacific Fisherman, vol.12, no.11 (November 1914): p.16.

³⁹ Aurel Krause, The Tlingit Indians, trans. Erna Gunther (Seattle, 1956), p.69.

⁴⁰ Philip Drucker, Native Brotherhoods: Modern Inter-tribal Organizations on the Northwest Coast (Washington, 1958), pp.9-11.

⁴¹ Hinckley, "The Canoe Rocks--We Do Not Know What Will Become of Us," p.274.

⁴² Annual Report of Southeastern District by Charles W. Hawkesworth, [1917], NA, RG 75, Alaska Division, General Correspondence, box 102, file Southeastern District Reports.

⁴³ Annual Report of the United States Public School at Hoonah, Alaska by C.F. Richardson, June 15, 1917, NA, RG 75, Alaska Division, General Correspondence, box 87, file Hoonah.

⁴⁴ A parallel case study of the connection between subsistence and cultural identity is Adrian Tanner, Bringing Home Animals: Religious Ideology and Mode of Production of the Mistassini Cree Hunters (New York, 1979).

⁴⁵ Burton E. Livingston to Governor of Alaska, February 7, 1925, National Archives--Alaska Region (NAAR), National Archives Microfilm Publication M-939, General Correspondence of the Alaskan Territorial Governor, 1909-1958, roll 124, file 42.

⁴⁶ Historian Francis Jennings uses this term in The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (1975) to describe seventeenth century New England, where he estimates a full century elapsed before the human population (indigens and colonists combined) recovered from the number lost to disease when Indians first came in contact with Europeans. While national parklands became "widowed" by a very different historical process, involving not so much death by disease as removal by military force and economic necessity, there was no difference from an ecological standpoint.

⁴⁷ See for example Robert Marshall, "Ecology and the Indians," Ecology, vol.18, no.1 (January 1937): pp.159-161. Marshall contends that aboriginal peoples lived "in balance with nature" and had a "benign" effect due to their small population.

⁴⁸ Confidential report summary of George A. Parks, Assistant Supervisor of Surveys and Public Lands, August 7, 1924, quoted in John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of Its Boundaries," June 1954, unpublished file report at GLBA, library collection, p.8.

⁴⁹ Act of May 25, 1926.

⁵⁰ Records of the ANB are preserved in two collections, the William L. Paul Papers at the University of Washington and the Curry-Weissbrodt Papers at the Alaska Historical Library, but the writer found nothing in those collections dated earlier than the 1930s. The Alaska Fisherman covers the activities of the ANB from 1924 to 1932. The ANB's interest in Tlingit aboriginal rights bore fruit in 1935 when Congress authorized the Tlingit and Haida Indians to bring suit against the U.S. in the Court of Claims.

¹ Muir and Young were not the first Americans to visit Glacier Bay. In 1868, the U.S. Revenue Steamer Wayanda under the command of John W. White navigated Icy Strait and Glacier Bay with the guidance of a Russian pilot, Cadin. Chief engineer J.A. Doyle recounted the crew's harrowing experience in Glacier Bay thirty-five years later for the Alaska Boundary Tribunal: "While in Glacier Bay the ship at one time got aground and was for a time in considerable danger from large masses of ice which were floating by. Before the tide arose to release us from our predicament a number of Indian canoes came in sight, and to illustrate to the natives the fact that the ship could still take good care of herself, although temporarily unable to move, a number of shells were fired from the 24-pounder howitzers at the floating icebergs. The bursting of the shells appeared to frighten the people in the canoes, and certainly greatly impressed two native chiefs whom we had taken on board for passage to Sitka." See Senate, Proceedings of the Alaskan Boundary Tribunal, vol. 2, 58th Cong., 2d sess., 1904, Senate Doc. No. 162, pp.474-475. In 1877, Lieutenant C.E.S. Wood, on leave from his ship at Sitka, went goat hunting in the Saint Elias Mountains, crossed into the Glacier Bay basin, and hired some Native seal hunters to transport him back to Sitka by canoe. See Wood, "Among the Thlinkits in Alaska," pp.323-339.

² Stephen Fox, The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy (Madison, Wisconsin, 1981), pp.64-70.

³ Ibid, pp.80-81.

⁴ Muir, Travels in Alaska, p.144.

⁵ Ibid, p.145.

⁶ Muir, Travels in Alaska, p.152.

⁷ Young, Alaska Days with John Muir, pp.108, 112.

⁸ Muir, Travels in Alaska, p.263.

⁹ Fox, The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy, p.69.

¹⁰ Ted C. Hinckley, "The Inside Passage: A Popular Gilded Age Tour," Pacific Northwest Quarterly, vol.44 (1965): pp.67-74.

¹¹ Alfred Runte, National Parks: the American Experience 2d rev. ed. (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1987).

¹² Ella Higginson, Alaska: The Great Country (New York, 1908), p.219; Maturin M. Ballou, The New Eldorado: Summer Journey to Alaska (Boston, 1891), p.276; John Burroughs et al., Alaska: The Harriman Expedition, 1899 (New York, 1986), pp.36, 42.

¹³ Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, pp.5-9.

¹⁴ C. Hart Merriam, "1899 Alaska Expedition Journal," June 9, 1899, original in Library of Congress, C. Hart Merriam Papers, box 7, Volume 1, p.48.

¹⁵ Eliza R. Scidmore, "The Discovery of Glacier Bay, Alaska," National Geographic Magazine vol.7 (1896), p.143; Hinckley, "The Inside Passage: A Popular Gilded Age Tour," pp.69-70; Black, "History of Glacier Bay National Monument" pp.24, 28; William O. Field, "Glacier Bay Scientists, 1879-1982," typescript at AHL, William O. Field Collection, MS 4, box 19/3. Hinckley writes: "Of all the seamen engaged in the Panhandle tourist traffic, Captain Carroll was undoubtedly the most notorious. His reputation for dodging liquor smuggling indictments matched his renown for skirting reefs and shoals. Once when it appeared that the United States might abandon Alaska, he grandiloquently tried to buy the territory."

¹⁶ Ballou, The New Eldorado, p.xiv.

¹⁷ William S. Cooper, "The Recent Ecological History of Glacier Bay, Alaska, III. Permanent Quadrats at Glacier Bay: an Initial Report Upon a Long Period Study," Ecology, vol.4, no.4 (October 1923): p.355.

¹⁸ Bruce Hevly, Professor, University of Washington, telephone communication with author, May 7, 1992.

¹⁹ George Frederick Wright, The Ice Age in North America (New York, 1902), p.xxx.

²⁰ Wright, The Ice Age in North America, pp.36-37, 48-51.

²¹ Dave Bohn, Glacier Bay: The Land and the Silence (San Francisco, 1967), p.66.

²² Bohn, The Land and the Silence, p.71.

²³ Burroughs et al., Alaska: The Harriman Expedition, 1899, pp.17-18; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven, 1982), p.282.

²⁴ William E. Goetzmann and Kay Sloan, Looking Far North: The Harriman Expedition to Alaska, 1899 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1982), pp.205-206.

²⁵ Bohn, The Land and the Silence, pp.78-79.

²⁶ Higginson, Alaska: The Great Country, p.219; "Muir Glacier," Alaska-Yukon Magazine, vol.5, no.5 (August 1908), p.362-363; Alaska Steamship Company, "A Trip to Wonderful Alaska," Pamphlet at University of Washington Suzzulo Library Special Collections, 1905, n.p.; Lloyd W. McDowell, Alaska Glaciers and Ice Fields (Seattle, 1906); William Watson Woollen, The Inside Passage to Alaska 1792-1920 (Cleveland, 1924), p.207.

²⁷ C.L. Andrews, "Muir Glacier," National Geographic Magazine, vol.14, no.12 (1903), pp.441-445.

²⁸ William O. Field, "Glacier Recession in Muir Inlet, Glacier Bay, Alaska," The Geographical Review, vol.37, no.3 (1947), pp.373-374. The most definitive statement of the earthquake's effect was by Fremont Morse, "The Recession of the Glaciers of Glacier Bay, Alaska," National Geographic Magazine, vol.18, no.1 (January 1908), pp.76-78: "The primary cause of the changes which have taken place can without doubt be traced to the great Yakutat earthquake of September, 1899....The glaciers seem to have been completely shattered by the shock." Morse was a member of the boundary survey.

²⁹ Ralph Stockman Tarr and Lawrence Martin, Alaskan Glacier Studies (Washington, 1914), p.vii, 173-180.

³⁰ Maynard M. Miller, "The Role of Diastrophism in the Regimen of Glaciers in the St. Elias District, Alaska," Journal of Glaciology, vol.3, no.24 (October 1958): pp.292-297.

³¹ Donald B. Lawrence, "Memorial to William Skinner Cooper 1884-1978," GLBA, administrative files, file N1433b.

³² Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: The Roots of Ecology (San Francisco, 1977), p.207. Emphasis is Worster's.

³³ William S. Cooper, "The Recent Ecological History of Glacier Bay, Alaska: I. The Interglacial Forests of Glacier Bay," Ecology, vol.4, no.2 (April 1923): p.94.

³⁴ William S. Cooper, "Remarks at Dedication of Lodge at Bartlett Cove, Glacier Bay, Alaska," June 4, 1966, GLBA, administrative files, file N1433b; Cooper, "The Recent Ecological History of Glacier Bay, Alaska: I. The Interglacial Forests of Glacier Bay," Ecology, vol.4, no.2 (April 1923): p.94.

³⁵ Cooper, "The Recent Ecological History of Glacier Bay, Alaska: I. The Interglacial Forests of Glacier Bay," pp.93-94.

³⁶ William O. Field, "Visit to Glacier Bay, 1926," typescript at GLBA, administrative files, file N3031, June 1982.

³⁷ J. Thomas Ritter to Area Director, October 4, 1976, and clipping from News Bulletin of the Glaciological Society, December 1966, GLBA, administrative files, file N3031.

³⁸ William O. Field, Jr., "Observations of Glacier Variations in Glacier Bay, Southeastern Alaska, 1958 and 1961," (preliminary report), photostat at GLBA, library collection, June 1964, p.1.

¹ William S. Cooper, "Remarks at Dedication of Lodge at Bartlett Cove, Glacier Bay, Alaska," June 4, 1966, typescript at GLBA, administrative files, file N1433b.

² Fox, The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy, p.333.

³ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.4. Griggs had recently assisted in the establishment of Katmai National Monument. Griggs originally thought Katmai should be a national park, but was persuaded by the Park Service's Horace Albright that a monument was easier to implement.

⁴ John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore, 1961), pp.154-155.

⁵ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.5

⁶ Ibid, pp.7-8.

⁷ Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, passim.

⁸ U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of Alaska, Bulletin 773, by A.H. Brooks et al. (Washington, 1925), pp.63-65.

⁹ U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Mineral Industry of Alaska in 1924 and Administrative Report, Bulletin 783-A, by Philip S. Smith (Washington, 1926), pp.4-12; U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Mineral Investigations in Southeastern Alaska, Bulletin 783-B, by A.F. Buddington (Washington, 1926), pp.55-56; U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Notes on the Geography and Geology of Lituya Bay, Alaska, Bulletin 836-B, by J.B. Mertie, Jr., pp.117-135.

¹⁰ Quoted in W.C. Mendenhall to John W. Troy, May 16, 1935, NAAR, M-939, roll 276.

¹¹ U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Mineral Investigations in Southeastern Alaska, Bulletin 783-B, by A.F. Buddington (Washington, 1926), pp.55-56.

¹² "Glacier Bay, Alaska, Temporarily Withdrawn from Entry," Ecology, vol.5, no.2 (April 1924), p.223; "Council on National Parks, Forests, and Wild Life," Ecology, vol.5, no.2 (April 1924): p.185; William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.9.

¹³ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., pp.10-11.

¹⁴ John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of its Boundaries," typescript at ARO, administrative files, file H14, 1954, p.5.

¹⁵ Alaska Daily Empire (Juneau), April 28, 1924.

¹⁶ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., pp.14-15.

¹⁷ Ibid, pp.13-16.

¹⁸ Alaska Daily Empire (Juneau), February 16, 1925.

¹⁹ John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of its Boundaries," typescript at ARO, administrative files, file H14, 1954, p.8.

²⁰ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.17. No minutes of these meetings survive in the Park Service's early files on Glacier Bay National Monument held in the National Archives.

²¹ Ibid, pp.17-18.

²² John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of its Boundaries," typescript at ARO, administrative files, file H14, 1954, pp.10-11.

²³ See appendix for full text.

²⁴ Bohn, The Land and the Silence, p.87.

²⁵ Rex Beach, Personal Exposures (New York, 1940), p.241.

²⁶ Beach, Personal Exposures, pp.244-245.

²⁷ W.C. Mendenhall to John W. Troy, May 16, 1935, NAAR, M-939, roll 276.

²⁸ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.26.

²⁹ Beach, Personal Exposures, pp.246-249.

³⁰ E.B. Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, 1911-1945 (New York, 1957), Volume 1, p.472.

³¹ Ibid.

³² William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.27.

³³ William S. Cooper to Washington Mountaineers, February 29, 1936, UW, Irving M. Clark Papers, MS 273-2, box 2, file 21.

³⁴ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., pp.28-29.

³⁵ Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, 1911-1945, Volume 1, p.480.

³⁶ Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, 1911-1945, Volume 1, p.518.

³⁷ "Glacier Bay National Monument," undated notes at UW, Irving M. Clark Papers, MS 273-2, box 2, file 26. Cooper records the same misinformation in "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.29.

³⁸ U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, 68th Cong., 2d sess., 1936, vol. 80, pp.9863-9864.

³⁹ For a verbose, 59-page discussion of this problem, see Associate Solicitor, Parks and Recreation to Director, National Park Service, no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23.

⁴⁰ William S. Cooper, "A Contribution to the History of the Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, n.d., p.30.

⁴¹ Quoted in Bohn, The Land and the Silence, p.100.

⁴² "Mineral Deposits of the Glacier Bay Region, Alaska," February 9, 1937, Memorandum for the Press at NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9.

⁴³ Charles H. Flory to Irving M. Clark, July 1, 1937, UW, Irving M. Clark Papers, MS 273-2, box 2, file 21; John D. Coffman and Joseph S. Dixon, "Report on Glacier Bay National Park (Proposed), Alaska," December 20, 1938, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, p.5. Hereafter cited as Coffman and Dixon report. The original officers of the company were William L. Paul, a prominent Tlingit attorney in Juneau (president), and Frank St. Clair, Ed Metjay, and James Austin, all of Hoonah.

⁴⁴ Earl A. Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition 1939," typescript at National Archives--Pacific Sierra Region (NAPSR), RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, p.69.

⁴⁵ Frank T. Been field notes, July 30 and August 3, 1940, copy at DENA, William E. Brown historical files.

¹ Alaska Fisherman, vol.5, no.9 (1928) quotes the Petersburg Alaskan.

² John M. Holzworth, The Wild Grizzlies of Alaska (New York, 1930), p.xii.

³ Holzworth, The Wild Grizzlies of Alaska, p.250; Senate, Committee on Conservation of Wildlife Resources, Hearing Before the Special Committee on Conservation of Wild Life Resources United States Senate on the Protection and Preservation of the Brown and Grizzly Bears of Alaska, 73rd Cong., 2d sess., January 18, 1932, pp.5, 18-19.

⁴ "Considerably Pro Bear," The Commonweal, vol.12 (June 18, 1930), p.177; A.N. Pack, "Sanctuaries for Brown Bears," Nature Magazine, vol.19, no.1 (January 1932), p.9; A.N. Pack, "Alaskan Bears," Nature Magazine, vol.20, no.12 (December 1932), p.257; A.N. Pack, "The Bears of Admiralty," Nature Magazine, vol.23, no.1 (January 1934), p.23; A.N. Pack, "Admiralty's Bears," Nature Magazine, vol.26, no.8 (August 1935), pp.111-112.

⁵ Sherwood, Big Game in Alaska, p.55.

⁶ Senate, Committee on Conservation of Wildlife Resources, Hearing Before the Special Committee on Conservation of Wild Life Resources United States Senate on the Protection and Preservation of the Brown and Grizzly Bears of Alaska, 73rd Cong., 2d sess., January 18, 1932, p.5.

⁷ Worster, Nature's Economy, pp.294-99.

⁸ Thomas R. Dunlap, Saving America's Wildlife (Princeton, 1988), pp.84, 92-93; "Considerably Pro Bear," The Commonweal, June 18, 1930, p.177; Senate, Committee on Conservation of Wildlife, Hearing Before the Special Committee on Conservation of Wild Life Resources United States Senate on the Protection and Preservation of the Brown and Grizzly Bears of Alaska, 73rd Cong., 2d sess., January 18, 1932, pp.40-41.

⁹ A.N. Pack, "Alaskan Bears," Nature Magazine, vol.20 (December 1932), p.257; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, A Plan for the Management of Brown Bear in Relation to other Resources on Admiralty Island, Alaska, Miscellaneous Paper 195, by B.F. Heintzleman and H.W. Terhune, (Washington, 1934); Senate, Committee on Conservation of Wild Life Resources, Hearing Before the Special Committee on Conservation of Wild Life Resources United States Senate on the Protection and Preservation of the Brown and Grizzly Bears of Alaska, 73rd Cong., 2d sess., January 18, 1932, pp.38-39, 52, 62.

¹⁰ R.W. Westwood, "What is a Sanctuary?" Nature Magazine, vol.24, no.9 (September 1934), p.101.

¹¹ Lawrence W. Rakestraw, A History of the United States Forest Service in Alaska (Anchorage, 1981), pp.89-90, 113-114. Also see the report by B.F. Heintzleman (February 17, 1932) in John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of its Boundaries," typescript at ARO, administrative files, file H14, 1954, pp.17-18.

¹² Thomas R. Dunlap, "Wildlife, Science, and the National Parks, 1920-1940," Pacific Historical Review, vol.59, no.2 (May, 1990): pp.188-198; Alston Chase, Playing God in Yellowstone: The Destruction of America's First National Park (New York, 1986), pp.233-36; Senate, Status of Wildlife in the United States, 76th Cong., 3rd sess., 1940, Senate Report No. 1203, p.362.

¹³ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fauna of the National Parks of the United States, by George M. Wright, Joseph S. Dixon, and Ben H. Thompson (Washington, 1933), pp.19, 37.

¹⁴ Dunlap, "Wildlife, Science, and the National Parks," p.193-94; Joseph S. Dixon Field Notes, September 6-10, 1932, Copy at GLBA, library collection.

¹⁵ Joseph S. Dixon report (September 29, 1932) extracted in John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of its Boundaries," ARO, administrative files, file H14, p.19.

¹⁶ Joseph S. Dixon Field Notes, September 6, 1932, copy at GLBA, library collection; John D. Coffman and Joseph S. Dixon, "Report on Glacier Bay National Park (Proposed), Alaska," December 20, 1938, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA administrative history, p.2C.

¹⁷ Joseph S. Dixon field notes, September 6, 1932, copy at GLBA, library collection.

¹⁸ Joseph S. Dixon field notes, September 6, 1932, copy at GLBA, library collection. Dixon's report (September 29, 1932) is reproduced in John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of its Boundaries," ARO, administrative files, file H14, p.19.

¹⁹ Rakestraw, A History of the United States Forest Service in Alaska, pp.110-12; Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation Vol.2, pp.295, 302-03; U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, vol.75, p.12654; A.N. Pack, "Alaskan Bears," Nature Magazine, vol.20, no.12 (December 1932): p.257.

²⁰ E.B. Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, Vol.1, p.289, 295-96.

²¹ E.B. Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, Vol.2, p.46.

²² A.E. Demaray to Harold Ickes, September 8, 1938, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 602.

²³ J.D. Coffman to Director, September 14, 1938, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 602.

²⁴ Ibid.

²⁵ Ibid. Gruening's involvement in the proposed Wrangell-Saint Elias national park can be traced in correspondence contained in M-939, roll 276.

²⁶ John D. Coffman and Joseph S. Dixon, "Report on Glacier Bay National Park (Proposed), Alaska," December 20, 1938, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA administrative history, p.1.

²⁷ J.D. Coffman to Director, September 14, 1938, and Joseph S. Dixon to Regional Director, April 6, 1939, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 602.

²⁸ John D. Coffman and Joseph S. Dixon, "Report on Glacier Bay National Park (Proposed), Alaska," December 20, 1938, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA administrative history, p.ii.

²⁹ Ibid, p.9.

³⁰ Ibid, p.2B.

³¹ Ibid, p.16.

³² A.E. Demaray to Harold Ickes, December 27, 1938, NA, RG 126, 9-1-93, box 505, file 9-1-93.

³³ Nixon, ed., Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, Vol.2, pp.317, 328.

³⁴ Rakestraw, A History of the U.S. Forest Service in Alaska, p.116.

³⁵ This statement is quoted on the cover of John M. Kauffmann, "Glacier Bay National Monument Alaska: A History of its Boundaries," ARO, administrative files, file H14.

¹ A succinct account of World War II in Alaska is Claus-M. Naske and Herman E. Slotnick, Alaska: A History of the 49th State (Norman, 1987), pp.121-31.

² Ise, Our National Park Policy, p.449; Stephen R. Tripp to Regional Directors, June 15, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 83, file 201; O.A. Tomlinson to Walter A. Starr, April 27, 1943, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 84, file 201, Part VI.

³ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, "Do Things Right the First Time": The National Park Service and the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980, by G. Frank Williss, (Washington, 1985), pp.29-30.

⁴ John M. Coffman and Joseph S. Dixon, "Report on Glacier Bay National Park (Proposed) Alaska," December 20, 1938, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file Administrative History. The proposal to moor a retired passenger ship in Glacier Bay for tourist accommodations probably originated with Ernest Gruening, then director of the Division of Territories and Island Possessions. Gruening explored the idea further in the last quarter of 1938, but none of the ships under consideration were deemed adequate. The cost of these ships varied from $10,000 to $40,000 with refurbishing to run as high as $65,000. The ships were selected primarily for the number of staterooms, and might have accommodated from 142 to 254 guests. William G. McAdoo to Harold L. Ickes, October 5, 1938, Ernest Gruening to J.R. Ummel, November 7, 1938, J.R. Ummel to Ernest Gruening, November 30, 1938, and Gordon to Ernest M. Gruening, December 6, 1938, NA, RG 126, 9-1-93, box 505.

⁵ Earl A. Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition 1939," NAPSR, RG 79, Region IV Central Classified Files, box 292, pp.3-6.

⁶ Arno B. Cammerer to Ernest Gruening, November 7, 1939, SITK, Box labelled Stored Materials, Sitka Visitor Center, Legislative History, Sitka National Monument.

⁷ Ben C. Miller to O.A. Tomlinson, September 27, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, file 207.

⁸ Frank T. Been field notes, July 22, August 2, 5, and 10, 1940, DENA, William E. Brown historical files.

⁹ Frank T. Been to O.A. Tomlinson, August 28, 1940, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 302.

¹⁰ Frank T. Been, "Preliminary Plan of Sandy Cove Development Area," [1941], NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 600.1. Been did not specify between South and North Sandy Coves, although later plans indicated that South Sandy Cove was the chosen site.

¹¹ Ise, Our National Park Policy, pp.447-52. Cutbacks in the Civilian Conservation Corps also changed the picture, as Been had hoped to establish a CCC camp at Sandy Cove to build the facilities. This site had an advantage over the CCC camp at Mount McKinley National Park in that in could be an all-season camp. Been thought a 200-man camp could accomplish the work in two years. But the high cost of transport to Alaska and program cutbacks forestalled it. Frank T. Been to Ernest Gruening, December 2, 1940 and Newton B. Drury to Ernest Gruening, January 16, 1941, NAAR, M-939, roll 276, file 40-10.

¹² Hillory A. Tolson to acting regional director, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 600.

¹³ Gruening discussed the development of Glacier Bay National Monument with O.A. Tomlinson in October 1943. O.A. Tomlinson to Irving Clark, November 3, 1943, UW, Irving Clark Papers, MS 273 2, box 2, file 21.

¹⁴ But it was not unheard of either. Wilderness advocate Irving Clark wrote to wildlife biologist Olaus Murie about the Sandy Cove plan in 1949, and noted that he would confer with representatives of the Wilderness Society, Sierra Club, and National Parks Association about it. Clark to Murie, July 20, 1949, UW, Irving M. Clark Papers, MS 273-2, box 2, file 21.

¹⁵ Frank T. Been to O.A. Tomlinson, September 8, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, General Records, box 90, file Glacier Bay National Monument.

¹⁶ Frank T. Been to O.A. Tomlinson, September 8, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, General Records, box 90, file Glacier Bay National Monument.

¹⁷ Ibid.

¹⁸ O.A. Tomlinson to Newton B. Drury, September 9, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, General Records, box 90, file Glacier Bay National Monument.

¹⁹ San Francisco News, March 7, 1945; Bruce W. Black, "History of Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, p.93; O.A. Tomlinson to Newton B. Drury, April 15, 1943, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, General Records, box 90, file Glacier Bay National Monument; Ben C. Miller to O.A. Tomlinson, November 3, 1944, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region Central Classified Files, box 292, file Glacier Bay and Sitka.

²⁰ Abe Fortas to Harold L. Ickes, June 5, 1943 and Henry L. Stimson to Harold L. Ickes, August 19, 1943, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, General Records, box 90, file Glacier Bay National Monument. The description of the land transfer was not published in the Federal Register until 1946 (see Appendix A).

²¹ Joseph S. Dixon to O.A. Tomlinson, October 22, 1942; Frank T. Been to S.B. Buckner, Jr., October 10, 1942 and E.D. Post to Frank T. Been, October 17, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, General Records, box 90, file Glacier Bay National Monument.

²² Bruce W. Black, "History of Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, p.93.

²³ Jessica Bird, "The Land of the Glaciers," Alaska Sportsman (December 1946), p.35.

²⁴ Newton B. Drury to C.I. Stanton, June 28, 1943, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, General Records, box 90, file Glacier Bay National Monument; Ben C. Miller to O.A. Tomlinson, November 3, 1944, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, file Glacier Bay and Sitka.

²⁵ Henry A. Wallace to Harold L. Ickes, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 302.

²⁶ Alfred C. Kuehl, "Planning Study for Glacier Bay National Monument - Alaska," [1945], NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classifed Files, box 292, file Planning Study; Annual Report of the Director National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior (Washington, 1948), p.323.

²⁷ Ise, Our National Park Policy, p.486; Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service (Washington, 1944), p.219; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service (Washington, 1946), p.328; C. Girard Davidson, "Let's Build Airports for the National Parks," Flying, vol.45 (July 1949): pp.75-76.

²⁸ Herbert Maier to Newton B. Drury, March 30, 1945, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 91, file 201.

²⁹ Henry A. Wallace to Harold L. Ickes, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 302.

³⁰ Harold L. Ickes to Henry A. Wallace, January 17, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 302.

³¹ T.C. Vint to Newton B. Drury, February 18, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 302.

³² A.E. Demaray to Harold L. Ickes, February 4, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 302.

³³ Hugh M. Miller to Director, Division of Budget and Administrative Management, March 4, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 302; Newton B. Drury to T. P. Wright, June 3, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 600.

³⁴ J.A. Krug to William P. Wharton, February 8, 1947, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 20, file 020, Part I.

³⁵ Victor H. Cahalane to Devereux Butcher, January 24, 1947, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 295, file 700.01.

¹ Both incidents are cited in Fred R. Greslin to Walter V. Woehlke, September 20, 1946, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

² Walter V. Woehlke (BIA) to Director (NPS), December 18, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208 describes the meetings; Jackson E. Price to Newton B. Drury and Hillory Tolson, February 6, 1947, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2229, file 610 Indian Lands--Glacier Bay discusses the import of the report by Haas and Goldschmidt on Tlingit possessory rights.

³ In the first Park Service report on this issue, "Special Report on the Hunting Rights of the Hoonah Natives in Glacier Bay National Monument," by Lowell Sumner, August 5, 1947, (p.3) the author cites an agreement of May 14, 1946 (?) and the subsequent meeting of December 10-11, 1946 as the "background" to the controversy. This foreshortened perspective was reproduced uncritically in Bruce W. Black's administrative history of the monument (1957, p.85) and again in "A Special Report Containing Information Required for Legislation to Redesignate Glacier Bay as a National Park," September 30, 1964, p.8.

⁴ Jackson E. Price to Newton B. Drury and Hillory Tolson, February 6, 1947, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2229, file 610 Indian Lands--Glacier Bay.

⁵ George C. Penny to W.H. Cordle, May 10, 1937, NAAR, RG 75, Alaska Reindeer Service, box 64, file Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming 1936-37.

⁶ Anthony J. Dimond to Frank T. Bell, August 25, 1937, and Charles E. Jackson to Anthony J. Dimond, August 27, 1937, NA, RG 22, General Classified Files, box 285, file 532.

⁷ Hoonah Tlingits did press for clarification of their privileges in Glacier Bay from time to time after 1939 (without result) but a strong indication that this was not a priority is the fact that the Hoonah local camp No.12 of the Alaska Native Brotherhood raised the issue one time between 1939 and the end of World War II. Resolution No.16, passed by the ANB on November 13, 1940, called for Park Service recognition of Hoonah Tlingit hunting and fishing rights in Glacier Bay. See the minutes of the 27th Annual Convention of the Alaska Native Brotherhood and the Alaska Native Sisterhood in UW, William L. Paul Papers, MS 2076-2, roll 1.

⁸ Arno B. Cammerer to Superintendent, December 1, 1939, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06 Part I. Emphasis added.

⁹ Jack Kruse and Rosyland Frazier, "Report to the Community of Hoonah, Tongass Resource Use Cooperative Survey," p.9, September 20, 1988, ARO, copy provided to author by Tim Cochrane.

¹⁰ For example, see Robert F. Schroeder and Matthew Kookesh, Subsistence Harvest and Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the Effects of Forest Management in Hoonah, Alaska, Technical Paper No. 142 of the Alaska Department of Fish & Game (Juneau, 1990).

¹¹ Conditions of Natives in the Juneau District 1935, NAAR, RG 22, Juneau Fisheries Research Data Files 1904--1960, box 26, file Native Reports all Districts 1935.

¹² Condition of Natives in the Juneau District 1936, NAAR, RG 22, Juneau Fisheries Research Data Files 1904--1960, box 26, file Native Reports all Districts 1936.

¹³ Hair Seals Killed in and near Glacier Bay National Monument from March 1939 to July 1940, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

¹⁴ Hoonah Census--October 1, 1938, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office, Tribal Census Rolls, box 182.

¹⁵ Don C. Foster to Francis A. Staten, May 2, 1946, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office, General Subject Correspondence, box 86, file 917 Annual Statistical Report Hoonah.

¹⁶ Commissioner of Indian Affairs to Secretary of the Interior, November 1, 1945, NA, RG 75, Alaska Agency, box 117, file 34246-45-931.

¹⁷ Annual Statistical Report 1943, 1945, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office, General Subject Correspondence, box 86, file 917 Annual Statistical Report Hoonah.

¹⁸ Ibid.

¹⁹ By comparison, a 1985 survey of the Hoonah subsistence economy found a per capita consumption of native foods of 245 pounds. The discontinuity probably says more about the difficulty of making these assessments than it does about actual change. See Robert F. Schroeder and Matthew Kookesh, Subsistence Harvest and Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the Effects of Forest Management in Hoonah, Alaska, Technical Paper No. 142 of the Alaska Department of Fish & Game (Juneau, 1990), p.94.

²⁰ Survey of Native Food--Summer of 1941, by L.E. Robinson, October 10, 1941, NAAR, RG 75, Alaska Reindeer Service, box 61, file 917 Agricultural, Hunting, and Fishing Statistics.

²¹ "Salmon Fishing," by Viola Garfield, p.1, UW, Viola Garfield Papers, MS 2027-72, box 1, file 15.

²² U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Possessory Rights of the Natives of Southeastern Alaska, by Theodore H,. Haas and Walter R. Goldschmidt (Washington, 1946), p.25.

²³ The report summarizes information recorded in oral interviews and ethnographical sources. Transcripts of the oral interviews are in AHL, Curry-Weissbrodt Papers, MS-43, roll 20.

²⁴ Homer W. Jewell to Claude M. Hirst, July 15, 1939, NAAR, RG 75, Alaska Reindeer Service, box 64, file Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming.

²⁵ Number and Location--Hair Seals Killed in and near Glacier Bay National Monument from March 1939 to July 1940, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

²⁶ Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition, 1939," p.86; Been field notes, July 25, 1940, DENA, William E. Brown historical files; Horace Ibach to Frank T. Been, January 9, 1940, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

²⁷ Amounts Expended for Bounty on Hair Seals, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office General Subject Correspondence, box 42, file 923.2 Hair Seals No.1.

²⁸ Frank T. Been field notes, July 25 and 30, 1940, DENA, William E. Brown historical files.

²⁹ Evidence that Hoonah Tlingits engaged in these subsistence activities at the head of Excursion Inlet comes from the statements taken by Haas and Goldschmidt in 1946. Haas and Goldschmidt listed this area as one of five where Hoonah Tlingit resource gathering had been consistent enough to provide the basis for a claim of "possessory rights" to the area.

³⁰ This letter is quoted in a telegram, Hirst to Zimmerman, April 22, 1938, NAAR, RG 75, Alaska Reindeer Service, box 64, file Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming; pre- and post-season employment is also described in Conditions of Natives in the Juneau District 1935, NAAR, RG 22, Juneau Alaska Fisheries Research Data Files 1904-1960, box 26, file Native Reports All Districts 1935.

³¹ Some Tlingits argued against fish traps on conservationist grounds, convinced that they were reducing the salmon run from year to year and inexorably ruining the industry. This argument dovetailed the other. But there was not unanimity: some Tlingits who worked in canneries did not want fish traps abolished because they feared it would hurt the canneries and eliminate jobs. U.S. Congress, House, Commmittee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Survey of Conditions of the Indians in the United States, Hearings, Part 36, Alaska, 79th Cong., 2nd sess., 1939, p.19753.

³² Ibid, p.19917.

³³ William Paul, Jr. to Charles A. Wheeler, July 13, 1942, AHL, Curry-Weissbrodt Papers, MS-43, roll 5. This roll also contains the AFCA by-laws, charter, and a sample marketing agreement.

³⁴ Charles W. Smythe, "Tlingit and Haida Tribal Status: A Report of the Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska," February 1989, p.6, ARO, copy provided to the author by Tim Cochrane.

³⁵ U.S. Congress, House, 89th Cong., 1st sess., Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Indian Affairs, Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska, 1965, p.2; Robert E. Price, The Great Father in Alaska: The Case of the Tlingit and Haida Salmon Fishery (Douglas, Alaska, 1990), p.106.

³⁶ A.E. Demaray to John Collier, May 2, 1939, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 602.

³⁷ William Zimmerman, Jr. to Claude M. Hirst, July 7, 1939, NAAR, RG 75, Alaska Reindeer Service, box 64, file Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming.

³⁸ All these communications are referenced in two letters, Charles W. Hawkesworth to Frank T. Been, November 29, 1939, NAAR, RG 75, Alaska Reindeer Service, box 64, file Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming; and Arno B. Cammerer to Frank T. Been, December 1, 1939, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06. The latter also references a radiogram of October 19, approved by acting assistant secretary Finch, which followed the meeting in Zimmerman's office.

³⁹ Arno B. Cammerer to Frank T. Been, December 1, 1939, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

⁴⁰ William Zimmerman, Jr. to William E. Warne, July 21, 1947, NAAR, RG 95, Regional Forester Juneau, Historical Records 1915-1962, box 2, file Alaska Native Reservations.

⁴¹ U.S. Department of the Interior, Opinions of the Solicitor of the Department of the Interior Relating to Indian Affairs 1917-1974, vol. 1 (Washington, n.d.), p.1096.

⁴² Hearings on Claims of Natives of the Towns of Hydaburg, Klawock, and Kake, Alaska, Pursuant to the Provisions of Section 201.21b of the Regulations for Protection of Commercial Fisheries of Alaska, 1944, UW, Viola Garfield Papers, MS 2027-72-25, box 5, file 16.

⁴³ Price, The Great Father in Alaska, p.111.

⁴⁴ William Zimmerman, Jr. to William E. Warne, July 21, 1947, NAAR, RG 95, Regional Forester Juneau, Historical Records 1915-1962, box 2, file Alaska Native Reservations.

⁴⁵ Kyle Crichton, "Storm Over Alaska," Collier's, vol.115 (March 31, 1945): p.75.

⁴⁶ William Zimmerman, Jr. to William E. Warne, July 21, 1947, NAAR, RG 95, Regional Forester Juneau, Historical Records 1915-1962, box 2, file Alaska Native Reservations.

⁴⁷ Jackson E. Price to Newton B. Drury and Hillory Tolson, February 6, 1947, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2229, file 610 Indian Lands--Glacier Bay.

⁴⁸ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Possessory Rights of the Natives of Southeast Alaska, by Walter R. Goldschmidt and Theodore H. Haas (Washington, 1946), section D, p.16.

⁴⁹ Ibid, Section D, p.4.

⁵⁰ Ibid, Section D, pp.5-7.

⁵¹ Arno B. Cammerer to Frank T. Been, December 1, 1939, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

⁵² Been became fully acquainted with local white attitudes toward Natives during his reconnaissance of the monument with Earl A. Trager in the summer of 1939. Horace Ibach, a resident of Dundas Bay, applied to Been later that year for a ranger appointment. Been's reply is not preserved, but it prompted a second letter from Ibach in which he expounded at length on his view that Native hunting and fishing rights discriminated against white Alaskans. See Earl A. Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition 1939," NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, p.83-84; and Horace Ibach to Frank T. Been, January 9, 1940, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

⁵³ M.L. McSpadden to O.A. Tomlinson, February 19, 1945, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, file Glacier Bay and Sitka. Ironically, Harbeson does not seem to have been too law abiding himself. He told Been and Trager in 1939 that he had trapped in the area for several years, yet his name does not appear on a list of trapping permit applicants in the Icy Strait area for 1937-38. Moreover, on Been's return visit in 1940, Harbeson avoided him and Been found evidence at his cabin that he had been poaching bears. Frank T. Been field notes, July 28, 1940, DENA, William E. Brown historical files.

⁵⁴ Grant Pearson to Regional Director, September 16, 1948, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁵⁵ C.P. Russell to Director, April 9, 1940, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

⁵⁶ Memorandum for the Director, April 9, 1940, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁵⁷ Don C. Foster to William Zimmerman, Jr., January 30, 1946, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office, General Subject Correspondence, box 37, file 920 Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming.

⁵⁸ Don C. Foster to Secretary Ickes, January 29, 1946, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office, General Subject Correspondence, box 37, file 920 Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming.

⁵⁹ Fred R. Greslin to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 20, 1946, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06. Two arrests, one involving three Natives of Hoonah on March 29, 1946 and the other a Native of Yakutat on January 28, 1946, are described in Jack O'Connor to O.A. Tomlinson, March 17, 1948, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁶⁰ Frank Sinclair statement, September 20, 1946, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06.

⁶¹ AHL, Curry-Weissbrodt Papers, MS 43, roll 20.

⁶² Don C. Foster to Secretary Ickes, January 29, 1946, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office, General Subject Correspondence, box 37, file 920 Hunting, Fishing, and Fur Farming.

⁶³ Don C. Foster to William A. Brophy, October 29, 1946, NA, RG 75, Alaska Agency, box 117, file 34246-45-931; Fred R. Greslin to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, September 20, 1946, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06; Ralph H. Imler, "A Progress Report on Sea Lions and Hair Seals in Alaska," enclosed with William A. Brophy to William Zimmerman, Jr., January 5, 1946, NAAR, RG 75, Juneau Area Office, General Subject Correspondence, box 42, file 923.2 Seals Hair No.1.

⁶⁴ NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208. Assistant director Hillory Tolson summarized the agreement for Ruth M. Bronson of the National Congress of American Indians as follows: "For many years, the natives have been permitted to hunt hair seals while in the waters of the national monument, and from vantage points on land within 100 feet of the water. Permission was also granted on January 7, 1947, for the natives to carry rifles having a bore not smaller than .30 caliber for the purpose of self-protection while engaged in picking berries within appropriate localities in the Monument." Letter dated March 14, 1947, same file as above.

⁶⁵ For example, Bruce W. Black, "A History of Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska," 1957, typescript at GLBA, library collection, pp.84-87.

⁶⁶ C.P. Russell to Director, April 9, 1940, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.06; Dorr G. Yeager to O.A. Tomlinson, February 6, 1947, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁶⁷ O.A. Tomlinson to Newton B. Drury, February 3, 1947, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208. Sumner gives the date of Drury's letter to Tomlinson as January 7, 1947, but the letter was not obtained.

⁶⁸ O.A. Tomlinson to Newton B. Drury, August 13, 1947, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁶⁹ Lowell Sumner, "Special Report on the Hunting Rights of the Hoonah Natives in Glacier Bay National Monument," August 5, 1947, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06, pp.1, 10, 8.

⁷⁰ Frank Sinclair's statement on wolves is of interest: "The coyotes and wolves have killed all of the foxes and are killing the mountain goats. There are very few mountain goats left. In two cases during the last few years we have seen wolves and coyotes kill twelve mountain goats at one time and two mountain goats at another time. The wolves spot the mountain goats on the ridge and wait for them to come up the ridge and push them over the steep cliffs from the side, and then go down below to feed on their carcasses." September 20, 1946, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06 part 1. Investigation into this relationship in a later period resulted in James L. Fox and Gregory P. Streveler, "Wolf Predation on Mountain Goats in Southeastern Alaska," Journal of Mammalogy, vol.67, no.1 (February 1986): pp.192-195.

⁷¹ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, The Wolves of Mount McKinley, Fauna Series No.5, by Adolph Murie (Washington, 1944).

⁷² Lowell Sumner, "Special Report on the Hunting Rights of the Hoonah Natives in Glacier Bay National Monument," August 5, 1947, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208.06, p.7.

⁷³ Region Four Staff Meeting Minutes, July 8, 1947, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 7, file 1-1-46--1-1-48 part 8. The proposed closures were taken up with the FWS in Washington but were not implemented. Hillory A. Tolson to Regional Director, January 30, 1948, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁷⁴ Ibid.

⁷⁵ Ibid.

⁷⁶ Hillory A. Tolson to Regional Director, January 30, 1948, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208. To ensure that rifles were carried on shore for the express purpose of seal hunting and protection against bears only Drury made 30.06 rifles the minimum gauge permitted on January 7, 1947.

⁷⁷ Newton B. Drury to the Secretary, May 5, 1948, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁷⁸ William E. Warne to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Director of the Division of Territories and Island Possessions, Director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, and Director of the National Park Service, June 11, 1948, William E. Warne to Harry Douglas, July 26, 1948, Hillory A. Tolson to O.A. Tomlinson, August 5, 1948, and Grant H. Pearson to O.A. Tomlinson, September 16, 1948, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208; Assistant Secretary to Richard Dalton, May 25, 1954, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁷⁹ U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of the Interior (Washington, 1949), p.319; O.A. Tomlinson to Newton B. Drury, April 12, 1950, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classfied Files, box 293, file 201.

⁸⁰ Duane Jacobs, "Report of Special Assignment at Glacier Bay National Monument 1950 Season," NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 201. FWS wardens had authority to search boats for game law violations in Alaskan waters without a warrant, but Jacobs was not sure that park rangers had this authority.

⁸¹ Ibid, pp.8-9.

⁸² Lowell Sumner to O.A. Tomlinson, October 13, 1950, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, file 207.

⁸³ Oscar T. Dick to Ben C. Miller, October 30, 1951, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 201; Ben C. Miller to Regional Director, October 2, 1951, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

⁸⁴ Claus-M. Naske, "Ernest Gruening and Alaska Native Claims," Pacific Northwest Quarterly, vol.82, no.4 (October 1991), p.147.

⁸⁵ L.D. Arnold to William Zimmerman, Jr., April 8, 1949, NA, RG 75, Alaska Agency, box 114, file 40088-42-930.

⁸⁶ Bruce W. Black describes the Hoonah Tlingit "attitude" based on his personal experience as a ranger-naturalist in Glacier Bay in the mid-1950s in "A History of Glacier Bay, Alaska," p.84-87. Black's main point is that the Natives' attachment to Glacier Bay was more "sentimental" than economic. Black also states that the Hoonah Tlingits' privileges in the monument were "brought up for review in the fall of 1953."

⁸⁷ Superintendent to Regional Director, March 1, 1954, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁸⁸ Henry G. Schmidt to Regional Director, March 1, 1954, and L.J. Mitchell to Mrs. Williams, June 10, 1960, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619 Harbor Seal Subsistence Hunting Records.

¹ On Cahalane and the Wild Life Division, see Chase, Playing God in Yellowstone, pp.239-240.

² On the political context at the national level, see Clayton Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review, vol.7 (Spring 1983): pp.17-41. On the Alaskan context, see G. Frank Williss, "Do it Right the First Time": The National Park Service and the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980, special report prepared for the National Park Service, Department of the Interior (Washington, 1985) pp.29-33.

³ Bruce W. Black, "A History of Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska," 1957, typescript at GLBA, library collection, p.79.

⁴ Joan M. Antonson and William S. Hanable, Administrative History of Sitka National Historic Park, a special report prepared for the National Park Service, Department of the Interior (Anchorage, 1987), p.90.

⁵ M.L. MacSpadden to O.A. Tomlinson, February 19. 1945, and Ben C. Miller to O.A. Tomlinson, November 3, 1944, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, file Glacier Bay and Sitka.

⁶ Hillory A. Tolson to O.A. Tomlinson, June 2, 1950, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 610; Assistant regional director to acting superintendent, Sitka, April 30, 1953, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file L3023 Mining (1).

⁷ Marlow Glenn to Newton B. Drury, September 11, 1946, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 1404, file 201-206.

⁸ Grant H. Pearson with Philip Newell, My Life of High Adventure (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1962), pp.203, 210-211.

⁹ A.C. Kuehl to O.A. Tomlinson, April 6, 1950, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 600.

¹⁰ Duane Jacobs, "Report of Special Assignment at Glacier Bay National Monument 1950 Season," October 5, 1950, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 201.

¹¹ Ibid.

¹² Ibid; Bruce W. Black, "History of Glacier Bay National Monument," 1957, typescript at GLBA, library collection, p.93.

¹³ Oscar T. Dick to Ben C. Miller, October 30, 1951, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 201.

¹⁴ Ben C. Miller, "Master Plan Development Outline Glacier Bay National Monument," GLBA, administrative files, file D18.

¹⁵ Secretary of the Interior to the President, no date (covering brief), NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

¹⁶ Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism," p.17-41.

¹⁷ Ibid, p.19.

¹⁸ Park Service officials often maintained that the airfield gave the Gustavus community a new lease on life, and that the homesteaders were staying put mainly for the speculative value of their land holdings. Even an impartial "agricultural reconnaissance" of the area by three government scientists in 1954 reached the same conclusion. "Recent Alaskan homesteading history shows that less than one in four homesteaders has any intention of farming. Present promotion of industrialization for Southeastern Alaska increases the speculative interest in any strategically located area." Hugh A. Johnson, Neil E. Michaelson, and George A. Woodruff, "Agricultural Reconnaissance Report Gustavus Area, Alaska," typescript at GLBA, library collection, October 1, 1954, p.10.

¹⁹ Swanson lived in Elfin Cove and gave his story to Victor H. Cahalane in 1954. Cahalane recorded his years of residence near Point Gustavus as 1907-1915. Park Naturalist Bruce W. Black gave the dates as 1913-1918, but some of his dates for other pioneers in the area do not jibe with other sources either.

²⁰ Frank T. Been to O.A. Tomlinson, May 20, 1948, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 600; population cited in Earl A. Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition 1939," NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, appendix, p.1.

²¹ Bruce W. Black, "History of Glacier Bay National Monument," 1957, typescript at GLBA, library collection, p.99.

²² John D. Coffman and Joseph S. Dixon, "Report on Glacier Bay National Park (Proposed) Alaska," NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file Administrative History; Earl A. Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition 1939," NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, pp.78-82.

²³ Earl A. Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition 1939," NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, pp.8-16.

²⁴ Frank T. Been field notes, July 29, 1940, DENA, William E. Brown historical files.

²⁵ A.J. Wirtz to Anthony J. Dimond, September 9, 1940, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 610; O.A. Tomlinson to Superintendent Preston, September 23, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 610.

²⁶ Hugh A. Johnson, Neil E. Michaelson, and George A. Woodruff, "Agricultural Reconnaissance Report Gustavus Area, Alaska," typescript at GLBA, library collection, October 1, 1954, p.1.

²⁷ Marlow Glenn to Newton B. Drury, September 11, 1946, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 1404, file 201-206.

²⁸ Ernest Gruening to Rupert Emerson February 8, 1941, NAAR, M-939, Roll 276; A.E. Demaray to Director, Division of Territories and Island Possessions, May 13, 1941, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 610.

²⁹ Newton B. Drury to Ernest Gruening, April 10, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 610.

³⁰ E.L. Bartlett to Julius A. Krug, July 3, 1946, and Julius A. Krug to Matthew J. Connelly, December 24, 1946, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, files 602 and 610. The petition is undated but presumably was sent close to the July 3, 1946 date of Bartlett's letter. A comparison of Trager's list of residents in 1939 and the list of petitioners in 1946 suggests that Bert and Jennie Parker, Bert's brother Charles, and the Chase family were the only residents who persisted.

³¹ Matthew J. Connelly to E.L. Bartlett, no date, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 294, file 610.

³² Victor H. Cahalane to Devereux Butcher, January 24, 1947, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 295, file 700.01.

³³ Ernest Gruening, "Alaska: Progress and Problems," The Scientific Monthly, (July 1953): pp.3-12.

³⁴ From the Daily Alaska Empire, December 18, 1954, and reproduced in Black, "History of Glacier Bay National Monument," op.cit. p.76.

³⁵ Conrad L. Wirth to Orne Lewis, March 8, 1954, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

³⁶ Hugh A. Johnson, Neil E. Michaelson, and George A. Woodruff, "Agricultural Reconnaissance Report Gustavus Area, Alaska," typescript at GLBA, library collection, October 1, 1954, pp.8-10.

³⁷ Ibid, p.10.

³⁸ Victor H. Cahalane, "A Boundary Study of Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, December 20, 1954, pp.17-23.

³⁹ Conrad L. Wirth to Secretary of the Interior, January 11, 1955, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

⁴⁰ See appendix A for the full text of the proclamation.

⁴¹ Henry G. Schimdt to Lawrence C. Merriam, June 21, 1955, NAPSR, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 4, file D18-1.

⁴² Conrad L. Wirth to Orne Lewis, March 8, 1954, NAAR, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

⁴³ Lawrence C. Merriam to Conrad L. Wirth, April 27, 1954, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

⁴⁴ Victor H. Cahalane, "A Boundary Study of Glacier Bay National Monument," typescript at GLBA, library collection, December 20, 1954, p.23.

⁴⁵ See appendix A.

⁴⁶ The figures for 1950 and 1960 are from Barry Mackintosh, The National Parks: Shaping the System (Washington, 1991), p.62; the figure for 1940 is rounded from that cited in Ise, Our National Park Policy, p.429.

⁴⁷ "Mission 66 Prospectus, Sitka and Glacier Bay National Monuments," April 20, 1956, and "Summary of Mission 66 Objectives and Program for Glacier Bay National Monument," same date, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, box 19819, file A98--Mission 66.

⁴⁸ G. Frank Williss, "Do It Right the First Time": The National Park Service and the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980, a special report prepared for the National Park Service, Department of the Interior (Washington, 1985), p.31.

⁴⁹ Barbara Black, "Living in Glacier Bay," National Parks Magazine (July-September 1957): pp.107-111.

⁵⁰ Black, "A History of Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska," op. cit., p.80.

⁵¹ Ibid, pp.91-92.

⁵² L.J. Mitchell to Mrs. Williams, June 10, 1960, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619 Harbor Seal Subsistence Hunting records.

⁵³ "Master Plan for Glacier Bay National Monument Mission 66 Edition," (March 1964), Chapter 3, p.14, GLBA, administrative files, file D18.

⁵⁴ Henry G. Schmidt to Conrad Wirth, January 2, 1957, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, box 19819, file A98--Mission 66.

⁵⁵ E.T. Scoyen to Conrad Wirth, June 29, 1958, Federal Archives and Records Center--Suitland, RG 79, Accession 70A6476, box 3, file Sitka National Monument.

⁵⁶ L.J. Mitchell to Walter Kirkness, October 31, 1962, and Kirk W. Stanley to L.J. Mitchell, January 14, 1963, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay N.M.).

⁵⁷ Superintendent's Annual Report for 1983, ARO, administrative files, file A2621.

⁵⁸ Superintendent's Annual Report for 1990, GLBA, administrative files, file A2621.

¹ William S. Cooper, "Remarks at Dedication of Lodge at Bartlett Cove, Glacier Bay, Alaska," June 4, 1966, GLBA, administrative files, file N1433b; Robert E. Howe interview with author, tape recording, April 4, 1992, Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

² A 1986 survey found that Glacier Bay ranked third among "vacation/pleasure" visitors and fourth among all visitors surveyed. Patricia Garcia Gonzalez, Darryll R. Johnson, and Gary Vequist, "Social Science Perspectives on Visitor Use and Management of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve," National Park Service, Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of Washington (Seattle, 1990), Section 2, p.2.

³ Michael McCloskey, "Wilderness Movement at the Crossroads, 1945-1970," Pacific Historical Review: vol.41 (1972), p.347.

⁴ Director Hartzog told a gathering of wilderness enthusiasts in 1969 that the Park Service welcomed the added strength in wilderness protection provided by the Wilderness Act. However, wilderness advocates found the Park Service's land classification scheme to be overly detailed and rigorous, with the result that the agency's wilderness recommendations to Congress were slow and disappointingly narrow. Compare George B. Hartzog, Jr., "The Wilderness Act and the National Parks and Monuments," in Maxine E. McCloskey and James P. Gilligan, eds., Wilderness and the Quality of Life (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1969), pp.13-24 and Michael McCloskey, "Wilderness Movement at the Crossroads, 1945-1970," pp.347-358.

⁵ A. Starker Leopold et al., "Wildlife Management in the National Parks," Audubon Magazine, vol.65, no.3 (May-June 1963): p.168.

⁶ F.F. Darling and N.D. Eichhorn, Man and Nature in the National Parks (Washington, 1967), pp.10-11, 18-19, 27-28, 54, 63, 70.

⁷ Department of the Interior, Administrative Policies for Natural Areas of the National Park System (Washington, 1970) pp.13-14, 23, 32.

⁸ Howe, interview.

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ Gregory P. Streveler interview with author, tape recording, April 8, 1992, Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

¹¹ Bruce Paige interview with author, tape recording, April 9, 1992, Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

¹² Gregory P. Streveler and Bruce Paige, The Natural History of Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska, report prepared for Glacier Bay National Monument, National Park Service, Department of the Interior (1971).

¹³ Howe, interview; William O. Field, Jr., "Glacier Bay Scientists 1879-1982," Typescript at AHL, William O. Field Papers, MS 4, box 19, file 3.

¹⁴ Norma Spring, "A Return to the Ice Age," Today's Health (July 1968): pp.21-25.

¹⁵ L.J. Mitchell to Conrad L. Wirth, August 11, 1958, SITK, historical files, file A2615 Reports (Monthly) 1959-64.

¹⁶ Ernest Gruening to L.J. Mitchell, May 29, 1963, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Legislative history.

¹⁷ "The Bergs and Ice Cliffs of Glacier Bay," Sunset vol. 126, no.6 (June 1961): p.63; Jessica Bird, "The Land of the Glaciers," Alaska Sportsman (December 1946): pp.14-15.

¹⁸ L.J. Mitchell to George B. Hartzog, Jr., August 10, 1964, SITK, historical files, file A2615 Reports (Monthly) 1959-64.

¹⁹ Ernest Gruening to L.J. Mitchell, March 22, 1962, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Legislative history.

²⁰ Ibid.

²¹ Stanley A. Cain, "Trip Report...July 30-August 10, 1965," NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23.

²² Ise, Our National Park Policy, p.606.

²³ Public Law 249, 89th Congress, 1st sess., October 9, 1965.

²⁴ Anchorage Times, July 11, 1978.

²⁵ Frank W. Kearns to Walter J. Hickel, July 23, 1969, ARO, concessions management files, file C3823 Glacier Bay Lodge, Inc.

²⁶ Frank W. Kearns to Clarence Jackson, November 3, 1972, ARO, concession management files, file C3823 Concessions and Permits GLBA.

²⁷ Frank W. Kearns to Clarence Jackson, November 3, 1972, ARO, concession management files, file C3823 Concessions and Permits GLBA.

²⁸ Ross L. Miller to Clarence Jackson, November 3, 1972, ARO, concession management files, file C3823 Concessions and Permits GLBA.

²⁹ Orion C. Shockley to John A. Rutter, March 5, 1973, ARO, concession management files, file GLBA 1972-73.

³⁰ Robert E. Howe to State Director, Alaska, January 20, 1975, and Amendment no.2, Concession Contract no.9900C20008, ARO, administrative files, file C3823.

³¹ Emily L. Jennings to John A. Rutter, April 15, 1975, Eldon R. Wilson to John A. Rutter, April 25, 1975, and Ted Stevens to Gary Everhardt, May 5, 1975, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 19/22, file A3615 Complaints GLBA; John A. Rutter to Associate Director, Park System Management, January 8, 1974, ARO, concession management files, file GLBA-1974. In 1974 and 1975, the Alaska state ferry Le Conte poked into Bartlett Cove and ran up to Muir Inlet on its regular run from Juneau to Hoonah to Angoon. It is unclear whether this sightseeing side trip had any relationship to these proposals.

³² Ernest Gruening to L.J. Mitchell, March 22, 1962, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Legislative history.

³³ Howe, interview.

³⁴ Ernest Gruening to Conrad L. Wirth, October 27, 1961, Federal Record Center--Suitland, RG 79, Accession 69A4025, box 12, file Mount McKinley; Glenn D. Gallison to Warren E. Wild, November 6, 1975, GLBA, administrative files, file L3027 Lynn Canal Transportation Corridor.

³⁵ Marc Sagan to Chief, Environmental Planning and Design, December 23, 1967, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Master Plan.

³⁶ Paige, interview.

³⁷ Howe, interview.

³⁸ Paige, interview.

³⁹ Ise, Our National Park Policy, p.201.

⁴⁰ Department of the Interior, Administrative Policies, p.47.

⁴¹ Bohn, The Land and the Silence, p.52.

⁴² Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Final Interpretive Prospectus: Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska, (September 1975), pp.18-20.

⁴³ Paige, interview.

⁴⁴ One estimate for visitor use of both Glacier Bay and Sitka National Monuments gave projected yearly increases from 20,500 in 1961 to 300,000 in 1972. The undated list is enclosed with a Mission 66 Prospectus in NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, box 19819, file A98--Mission 66.

¹ Robert S. Sanford to Frank T. Been, June 18, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208; Newton B. Drury to Harold L. Ickes, December 18, 1942, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 73, file Jessup File.

² William S. Cooper to National Park Service, March 4, 1959, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 Glacier Bay National Monument; L.J. Mitchell to Irving M. Clark, September 4, 1959, UW, Irving M. Clark Papers, MS 273-2, box 2, file 23; L.J. Mitchell to Regional Director, February 19, 1963, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Legislative History. In April 1964, John P. McKee of Newmont Mining Company and eleven co-owners received one patent for all twenty claims. The claims covered 399.448 acres but did not include any surface rights. See "A Special Report Containing Information Required for Legislation to Redesignate Glacier Bay as a National Park," September 30, 1964, p.2, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA Administrative history 1938 to 1970.

³ Superintendent to Director, August 10, 1964 and September 9, 1964, SITK, historical files, file Monthly Narrative Report Sitka National Monument.

⁴ "A Special Report Containing Information Required for Legislation to Redesignate Glacier Bay as a National Park," September 30, 1964, p.8, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA Administrative history 1938 to 1970.

⁵ Superintendent to Director, September 9, 1994, SITK, historical files, file Monthly Narrative Report Sitka National Monument. For an overview of the mineral content, production values, and ownership histories of numerous claims in Glacier Bay National Monument, see Donald Eberlein, "Mineral Resources Summary, Glacier Bay National Monument" (USGS, 1965), typescript at NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23, file Mining Glacier Bay National Monument.

⁶ William S. Cooper to E.T. Scoyen, no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

⁷ Conrad L. Wirth to Secretary of the Interior, December 12, 1958, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

⁸ Bohn, The Land and the Silence, p.106; L.J. Mitchell to Irving M. Clark, UW, Irving M. Clark Papers, MS 273-2, box 2, file 23.

⁹ L.J. Mitchell to Lawrence Merriam, February 19, 1963, and Lawrence Merriam to Conrad L. Wirth, March 6, 1963, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Legislative History; Ralph J. Rivers to Conrad L. Wirth, March 5, 1963, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument); Trip Report by Stanley A. Cain, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23, file A16 Advisory Board Trip to Glacier Bay--August 1965.

¹⁰ Lawrence C. Merriam to Director, March 6, 1963, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Legislative History.

¹¹ Ralph J. Rivers to Conrad L. Wirth, March 5, 1963, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

¹² E.V. Buschman to Chief, Division of Legislation and Regulations, September 29, 1965, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23, file Mining Glacier Bay National Monument.

¹³ Jackson E. Price to Lawrence C. Merriam, September 29, 1964, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

¹⁴ L.J. Mitchell to Regional Director, March 24, 1965, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

¹⁵ Edward A. Hummel to George B. Hartzog, Jr., October 20, 1965, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

¹⁶ Press Conference, August 1, 1965, transcript at NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA Administrative History 1938-1970.

¹⁷ E.V. Buschman to Chief, Division of Legislation and Regulations, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23, file Mining Glacier Bay National Monument; Item, "Study Reveals Glacier Bay Monument has Metal Deposits," no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file L3023 Mining (2). "Senator Gruening was advised this week that a study of the mineral resources of Glacier Bay National Monument, made in 1966 at the request of the National Park Service, has been released by the Geological Survey as an aid in planning future development of the area." The draft park bill was enclosed with Lewis A. Siples to Ernest Gruening, February 14, 1967, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay Natinal Monument).

¹⁸ Forrest Benson to Ted Swem, April 26, 1967, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23, file Mining Glacier Bay National Monument.

¹⁹ Press Release, July 17, 1967, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file L3023 Mining (2).

²⁰ Robert E. Howe to Richard Stenmark, June 29, 1970, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file L3023 Mining (2).

²¹ Donald K. Freedman to Edgar Wayburn, April 10, 1969, UW, Brock Evans Papers, MS 1776, box 1, file Glacier Bay National Monument.

²² James A. Rouse to Regional Director, March 6, 1978, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Master Plan; Anchorage Daily News, November 21, 1971.

²³ Testimony of Jack Hession, November 20, 1971, transcript at UW, Brock Evans Papers, box 1, file Glacier Bay National Monument.

²⁴ Anchorage Daily Times, November 17 and 19, 1971; Anchorage Daily News, November 21, 1971; John A. Rutter to Director, December 3, 1971, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 9/22, file L48-GLBA-KATM Wilderness-General.

²⁵ Glenn C. Reed to B.T. Gale, June 14, 1974, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23, file Mining GLBA.

²⁶ Robert E. Howe to Robert D. Luntey, August 26, 1974, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 7/22, file L3023 GLBA.

²⁷ Jack Hession to Brock Evans, April 18, 1972, UW, Brock Evans Papers, box 2, file Alaska Representative.

²⁸ Glenn C. Reed to B.T. Gale, March 21, 1974, and Associate Solicitor to Director, National Park Service, no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 23/23, file Mining Glacier Bay National Monument.

²⁹ Richard C. Curry to James A. Haley, April 22, 1976, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 7/22, file L3023 Land Use Mining.

³⁰ Richard D. Elliot to John A. Rutter, May 23, 1973, and Director, USGS to John A. Rutter, May 25, 1973, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file L7617 Revised Draft EIS GLBA Wilderness.

³¹ Glenn Reed to G.D. Gallison, July 12, 1973, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file L7617 Revised Draft EIS GLBA Wilderness.

³² James S. Rouse to Regional Director, August 13, 1975, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 9/22, file L48 Wilderness Areas GLBA; Deputy Assistant Secretary of Energy and Minerals to Office of the Solicitor, March 22, 1974, and Assistant Solicitor to Assistant Secretary, May 16, 1974, reproduced in Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearing Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs...on S.2371, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 1975, p.101-104.

³³ Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearing Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs...on S.2371, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 1975, p.56.

³⁴ Ibid, p.53, 320.

³⁵ James S. Rouse to Regional Director, August 13, 1975, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 9/22, file L48 Wilderness Areas GLBA; Richard C. Curry to James A. Haley, April 22, 1976, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 7/22, file L3023 Land Use Mining; "Statement of Nathaniel P. Reed, Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, Before the Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Concerning H.R. 9799, A Bill to Prohibit Certain Incompatible Activities Within Any Area of the National Park System, and for Other Purposes," photocopy in "Information Leading up to the Passage of S-2371," GLBA, library collection, p.6.

³⁶ James A. Rouse to Regional Director, August 21, 1975, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Master Plan.

³⁷ U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, September 18, 1975, p.S16181.

³⁸ Jim Kowalsky to Greg Streveler, September 26, 1975, and Charles V. Janda to Jim Kowalsky, no date, Photocopies in "Information Leading up to the Passage of S-2371," GLBA, library collection.

³⁹ Quotation is from "Statement of Nathaniel P. Reed, Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, Before the Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Concerning H.R. 9799, A Bill to Prohibit Certain Incompatible Activities Within Any Area of the National Park System, and for Other Purposes," photocopy in "Information Leading up to the Passage of S-2371," GLBA, library collection, p.6.

⁴⁰ Anchorage Sunday Times, September 28, 1975.

⁴¹ U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, vol. 122, p.2257; Anchorage Times, February 4, 1976, Anchorage Daily News, February 16, 1976.

⁴² Southeast Alaska Empire (Juneau), March 11, 1976; Anchorage Daily News, September 15, 1976; Robert E. Howe interview.

⁴³ U.S. Department of the Interior, Environmental Consequences of Mineral Extraction: Glacier Bay National Monument and Mount McKinley National Park. Discussion of the Alternatives for Acquisition of Mining Claims and/or Boundary Modifications to Reduce Possible Acquisition Costs: Glacier Bay National Monument. Report to the Congress, January 1979, p.5, 14-15, 24.

⁴⁴ General Accounting Office, Mining on National Park Service Lands: What is at Stake? (Washington, 1981), p.5-8.

⁴⁵ Ibid, p.41-46.

⁴⁶ Gregory P. Streveler interview with author, tape recording, April 8, 1992.

¹ Superintendent to Director, November 5, 1963 and David B. Butts to Superintendent, March 27, 1964, SITK, superintendent's monthly reports.

² David B. Butts to Superintendent, March 27, 1964, SITK, superintendent's monthly reports; "A Special Report Containing Information Required for Legislation to Redesignate Glacier Bay as a National Park," September 1964, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA Admin. history 1938-1970.

³ Chief Ranger to Superintendent, June 22, 1964, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁴ "A Special Report Containing Information Required for Legislation to Redesignate Glacier Bay as a National Park," September 1964, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA Admin. history 1938-1970.

⁵ See Chapter VI for this background.

⁶ Robert E. Howe to District Director, October 6, 1969, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁷ Secretary of the Interior to Robert Grant, June 15, 1956, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁸ L.J. Mitchell to City Clerk, June 10, 1960, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁹ Howard W. Baker to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 29, 1965, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

¹⁰ The correspondence on this effort in 1965-66 is voluminous and is contained in GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

¹¹ Robert E. Howe to State Director, October 26, 1972, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

¹² Same file.

¹³ Superintendent to Director, August 13, 1962 and June 6, 1963, SITK, Monthly Narrative Reports.

¹⁴ David B. Butts to Superintendent, March 27, 1964 and June 3, 1964, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

¹⁵ Charles V. Janda to L.J. Mitchell, June 18, 1965, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

¹⁶ Seal Hunting--Glacier Bay, [1966], GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

¹⁷ Ibid.

¹⁸ Ibid.

¹⁹ David B. Butts to Superintendent, March 27, 1964, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

²⁰ Seal Hunting--Glacier Bay, [1966], GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

²¹ The effects of hunting vs. wildlife viewing on brown bear behavior in Katmai National Park and its implications for defining what is natural are discussed in Ted Birkedal, "Ancient Hunters in the Alaskan Wilderness: Human Predators and Their Role and Effect on Wildlife Populations and the Implications for Resource Management," paper presented at Seventh George Wright Society Meeting, 1992.

²² Streveler, interview.

²³ Many Hoonah Natives believe that there was an NPS policy in the 1960s and early 70s of burning the camps and smokehouses used by Natives in the monument. Schroeder and Kookesh, "Subsistence Harvest and Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the Effects of Forest Management in Hoonah, Alaska," p.218.

²⁴ Seattle Times, May 27, 1989.

²⁵ Master Plan Development Outline, Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska, [1957], GLBA, administrative files, file D18.

²⁶ For example, Robert E. Howe to District Director, October 6, 1969, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

²⁷ Oscar T. Dick to Ben C. Miller, October 30, 1951, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 201.

²⁸ Black, "A History of Glacier Bay, Alaska," op.cit., p.84.

²⁹ In 1954, the first year that individual permits were required, 64 permits were issued. The record of permits issued for 1959-1968 was as follows:

One might reasonably suspect that the spikes in 1954 and 1960 reflect a higher rate of compliance with the permit system in the two years where changes in the permit system were introduced, and that the numbers reflect a low rate of compliance overall, i.e. considerable use of the monument was undetected. But the NPS took these numbers as an accurate representation of Hoonah Tlingit use of the monument, and inferred from the decline in permits between 1954 and 1959 that Hoonah Tlingit use of the area was waning due to social and economic change.

³⁰ "Hair Seal Hunting by Indians of Hoonah, Alaska in Glacier Bay National Monument," GLBA, administrative files, file N1619, p.2.

³¹ Schroeder and Kookesh, "Subsistence Harvest and Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the Effects of Forest Management in Hoonah, Alaska," p.220-221, 226, 257. The household survey questionnaire devoted the last of 11 pages to questions involving Glacier Bay National Park, and ended with the question: "When you (family/household) had access to the Glacier Bay National Park area, what proportion of your total subsistence harvest came from that area in an average year? %" (Emphasis in original.)

³² David B. Butts to Superintendent, March 27, 1964, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

³³ Individual Offense Report, February 12, 1969, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619. Kenneth Schoonover's name appears on the land claim census roll for Hoonah in AHL, Curry-Weissbrodt Papers, MS 43, roll 17.

³⁴ Howe, interview.

³⁵ Charles V. Janda to Superintendent, October 3, 1969 and Robert E. Howe to Regional Director, January 26, 1970, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

³⁶ Jack Calvin, "Two Seal Hunters," Alaska Sportsman (May 1964): p.30.

³⁷ Hair Seal Bounties Paid to Persons Claiming Residence in Hoonah, Alaska--Calendar Year 1963, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

³⁸ Superintendent to Director, August 5, 1963, SITK, Monthly Narrative Reports; David B. Butts to Superintendent, June 22, 1964, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619; photographic documentation of the carcasses were included in "A Special Report Containing Information Required for Legislation to Redesignate Glacier Bay as a National Park," September 30, 1964, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA administrative history 1938-1970.

³⁹ David B. Butts to Superintendent, April 7, 1964, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁴⁰ Robert E. Howe to Assistant Director of Operations, July 11, 1966, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁴¹ Robert G. Bosworth, "Tlingit Subsistence in Glacier Bay, Alaska: Adapting to Change in Landscape and Bureaucracy," p.14, typescript at GLBA, library collection; Schroeder and Kookesh, "Subsistence Harvest and Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the Effects of Forest Management in Hoonah, Alaska," p.218; Robert E. Howe interview; Albert Dick interview; Amy Marvin and Mary Randolph interview. None of these sources could establish a firm date. Bosworth places the incident in the early 1970s, Schroeder and Kookesh in 1966 or 1967. Nor is it clear on what grounds the NPS confiscated the Natives' guns.

⁴² "A Special Report Containing Information Required for Legislation to Redesignate Glacier Bay as a National Park," September 30, 1964, p.11, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA administrative history 1938-1970.

⁴³ Robert E. Howe to District Director, October 6, 1969, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁴⁴ Wolf and Company, "A Development Planning Program for the Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Indians of Alaska," AHL, Curry-Weissbrodt Papers, MS 43, roll 18.

⁴⁵ The Natives' request for a hearing in Hoonah is noted in Commissioner of Indian Affairs to Director, January 12, 1965, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619. Acting director Howard W. Baker informed the commissioner that the NPS was temporarily suspending action to terminate seal hunting and would resume issuance of permits (March 29, 1965, same file), but I found no evidence of a hearing.

⁴⁶ Hair Seal Hunting by Indians of Hoonah, Alaska in Glacier Bay National Monument, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁴⁷ David B. Butts to Superintendent, June 3, 1964, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁴⁸ Two Natives of Hoonah whom I interviewed offered conflicting opinions on the subject of Native hunting and waste. Mayor Al Dick said that elders normally accompany groups on subsistence fishing and gathering expeditions and guard against overharvesting the resource, but since hunting is unsupervised in this manner wasteful practices by younger Natives are known to occur. Mary Rudolph, on the other hand, insisted that no waste occurs--that when young people take more than they and their families can consume they give meat to the elders or to others. Reports to the contrary, she said, come from outsiders who do not understand this. The photographic documentation from 1964 seems to provide irrefutable evidence, however, that many seals were killed by Natives merely for their skins.

⁴⁹ Individual Offense Report CR 1-69, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁵⁰ Robert E. Howe to Regional Director, November 9, 1966, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁵¹ Raymond O. Mulvany to Director, December 2, 1966, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁵² Robert E. Howe to District Director, October 6, 1969, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619. Howe references undated, unrecorded telephone communications with the Washington office based on his memorandum of July 11, 1966.

⁵³ Robert E. Howe to District Director, October 6, 1969, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁵⁴ John Borbridge, Jr., "Native Organization and Land Rights as Vehicle for Change," in Change in Alaska: People, Petroleum, and Politics (College, Alaska, 1970), p.197; Alexander M. Ervin, "The Emergence of Native Alaskan Political Capacity, 1959-1971," The Musk Ox, vol.19, no.2 (1976): p.8.

⁵⁵ Anchorage Daily News, March 21, 1969; Mary Clay Berry, The Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims (Bloomington, Indiana, 1975), p.49.

⁵⁶ 177 F. Supp. 452.

⁵⁷ 389 F.2d 778.

⁵⁸ Thomas R. Berger, Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission (New York, 1985), p.23.

⁵⁹ 85 Stat. 688.

⁶⁰ "A Fair Settlement of the Alaska Native Land Claims; the Key Elements," by Wyman Bautzer et al., attorneys for Alaska Federation of Natives, March 11, 1971, UW, Lloyd Meeds Papers, MS 2900-77-023, box 33, file Alaska Native Claims.

⁶¹ Don Wright (AFN) to Lloyd Meeds, November 16, 1971, and Don Wright to Congressman Edmondson, [December, 1971], UW, Lloyd Meeds Papers, MS 2900-77-023, box 33, file Alaska Native Claims.

⁶² Memo to Members, House-Senate Conference on Alaska Native Claims from Bill Van Ness, Chief Counsel, Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committee, December 6, 1971, UW, Lloyd Meeds Papers, MS 2900-77-023, box 33, file Alaska Native Claims.

⁶³ House, Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Conference Report, 92nd Cong., 1st sess., 1971, Report No. 92-746, p.37.

⁶⁴ Superintendent to Regional Director, February 29, 1972, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁶⁵Charles V. Janda to Mayor Frank See, April 2, 1974, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁶⁶ See the appended Note Regarding the 1965 Solicitor's Opinion (no page number) in Robert G. Bosworth, "Tlingit Subsistence in Glacier Bay, Alaska: Adapting to Change in Landscape and Bureaucracy," April 1987, GLBA, library collection.

⁶⁷ Memo to Members, House-Senate Conference on Alaska Native Claims from Bill Van Ness, Chief Counsel, Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committee, December 6, 1971, UW, Lloyd Meeds Papers, MS 2900-77-023, box 33, file Alaska Native Claims.

⁶⁸ U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, vol. 118, p.17613.

⁶⁹ Ibid, vol. 118, p.25261.

⁷⁰ Senate, Committee on Commerce, Subcommittee on Oceans and Atmosphere, Ocean Mammal Protection, Hearings part 2, 92nd Cong., 2d sess., May 11-13, 1972, passim.

⁷¹ 86 Stat. 1031.

⁷² Superintendent to State Director, October 26, 1972, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

⁷³ Bob Howe to Files, November 14, 1972, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619.

¹ Neil J. Reid, "Ecosystem Management in the National Parks," in Transactions of the Thirty-Third North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, March 11-13, 1968, p.162; Douglas B. Houston, "Ecosystems of National Parks," Science (May 14, 1971): pp.648-651.

² Streveler and Paige, The Natural History of Glacier Bay National Monument, p.2.

³ Master Plan Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska, September 1974, p.12, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Master Plan.

⁴ Carleton Ray, "Inshore Marine Conservation," in First World Conference on National Parks, edited by Alexander B. Adams (Washington, 1962): pp.78-87.

⁵ Darling and Eichhorn, Man and Nature in the National Parks, p.54.

⁶ Streveler and Paige, The Natural History of Glacier Bay National Monument, p.2.

⁷ "Our proposed use of the term `ecosystem' follows pretty much the original definition of the term by [A.G.] Tansley and is applied to the climatic, edaphic, and fire climax associations together with their environments." Reid, "Ecosystem Management in the National Parks," p.163.

⁸ On possible correlations in the numbers of coyote, wolf, and Sitka deer, see John W. Fisher, "Annual Wildlife Report," 1962, GLBA, administrative files, file N2621 Annual Wildlife Report.

⁹ "The need for a general study of mammal distribution and population is becoming increasingly important. It it not that Glacier Bay species require management but rather that future studies must be based on such information. These basic investigations should be conducted while the Monument is still relatively free of human interference. Also, with Glacier Bay's rapidly changing environment, the comparison of present conditions with those which might be uncovered in future studies would be of incalculable value." Annual Wildlife Report, 1967, GLBA, administrative files, file N2621 Annual Wildlife Report.

¹⁰ Bruce B. Paige to Robert E. Howe, October 25, 1968, and Gregory P. Streveler to Robert E. Howe, February 2, 1969, GLBA, administrative files, file N1400 General Wildlife Surveys; Richard G. Prasil to Charles V. Janda, June 13, 1967, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619 Harbor Seal Subsistence Hunting Records; Annual Wildlife Report, 1967, GLBA, administrative files, file N2621 Annual Wildlife Report.

¹¹ Anonymous memorandum titled "Glacier Bear," no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, Box 47/51, Folder LSD Glacier Bay Addition Wildlife Resources.

¹² Albert W. Erickson, "The Brown-Grizzly Bear in Alaska: Its Ecology and Management," report prepared for Alaska Department of Fish and Game (Juneau, 1965), pp.9-10.

¹³ John W. Fisher, "Annual Wildlife Report Glacier Bay National Monument," February 1962, GLBA, administrative files, Folder N2621 Annual Wildlife Report. Fisher wrote, "The most distressing population fluctuation during the monument's history has been the decrease in numbers of the brown bear - and its relation to the decimation of the salmon population." Biologist Victor H. Cahalane had earlier stressed the impact of development in the Gustavus area on brown bear habitat.

¹⁴ Master Plan Brief for Glacier Bay National Monument, 1967, GLBA, administrative files, Folder D18 Master Plan.

¹⁵ Robert E. Howe to State Director, Alaska Office, December 26, 1973, NAAR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file L7617 Revised Draft EIS, Glacier Bay National Monument Wilderness. Verne Metcalfe, "Wildlife and Multiple Use," American Forests, vol.71, no.11 (November 1965): pp.30-31, 42-43 also discusses the ADF&G program.

¹⁶ Karl W. Kenyon, The Sea Otter in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, North American Fauna Series no.68, Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior (Washington, 1969).

¹⁷ Robert E. Howe to Regional Director, April 4, 1968, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619f Sea Otter; Gregory P. Streveler interview with author, tape recording, April 8, 1992.

¹⁸ Anchorage Daily News, July 7, 1967.

¹⁹ Memorandum of Understanding, April 29, 1968, and Gregory P. Streveler to files, August 4, 1968, GLBA, administrative files, file N1619f Sea Otter; Streveler, interview.

²⁰ James A. Estes, David O. Duggins and Galen B. Rathbun, "The Ecology of Extinctions in Kelp Forest Communities," Conservation Biology, vol. 3, no.3 (September 1989), p.254; Michael J. Tollefson to George R. Snyder, March 31, 1987, GLBA, administrative files, Folder N1619f Sea Otters; Superintendent's Annual Reports, 1983 and 1984, ARO, administrative files, file A2621 Reports Annual.

²¹ John S. Dryzek, Conflict and Choice in Resource Management: The Case of Alaska (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1983), p.3.

²² R.P. Goldthwait, et al., "Soil Development and Ecological Succession in a Deglaciated Area of Muir Inlet, Southeast Alaska," p.152, Report No.20, Institute of Polar Studies, August 1966.

²³ Anonymous memorandum titled "Endicott Addition," no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, box 47/51, file LSD Glacier Bay Additions Wildlife Resources.

²⁴ Anonymous memorandum titled "Glacier Bay National Monument Additions (Per HR 39)," July 11, 1977, NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, box 47/51, file LSD-Glacier Bay Addition Briefing Statement.

²⁵ Anonymous memorandum titled "Alternatives," no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, box 47/51, file Alternatives/LSD-Glacier Bay Addition.

²⁶Anonymous memorandum titled "Wildlife," no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, box 47/51, file LSD Glacier Bay Addition Wildlife Resources.

²⁷ R.E. Howe and G.P. Streveler, "Recommendations on the D-2 Tract Between Dry Bay and Glacier Bay N.M.," University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF), Alaska Conservation Society Papers, box 31, file Glacier Bay N.I.L.

²⁸ Anonymous memorandum titled "Glacier Bay National Monument Additions (Per HR 39)," July 11, 1977, NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, box 47/51, file LSD-Glacier Bay Addition Briefing Statement.

²⁹ See appendix A for proclamation.

³⁰ Southeast Alaska Empire, May 5, 1978.

³¹ Houston, "Ecosystems of National Parks," p.649.

³² Streveler and Paige, The Natural History of Glacier Bay National Monument, p.3.

³³ Ibid.

³⁴ Lynne Zeitlin Hale and R. Gerald Wright, Glacier Bay Marine Ecosystem: A Conceptual Ecological Model, special report prepared for the National Park Service, 1979, p.5.

³⁵ Ibid, p.3.

³⁶ In Alaska as a whole, the National Park Service increased spending on research dramatically from $20,000 in 1972 to $602,000 in 1976, but most of this went to the planning effort for proposed parklands in the D-2 areas. Among the existing park units, concerns about the new visitor load on Mount McKinley National Park's megafauna precipitated by the opening of the Fairbanks-Anchorage highway in October 1971 absorbed most available research funds. In Glacier Bay National Monument, marine mammal research focused on the harbor seal rather than the humpback whales. John G. Dennis, "National Park Service's Research in Alaska--1972-76," Arctic Bulletin (1977): pp.273-287.

¹ Scott Foster, "Land of the American Fjords," Alaska, vol.54, no.1 (January 1988): p.38.

² William Scott Home, "Glacier Bay Icy Home to Whales," National Parks and Conservation Magazine, vol.49, no.5 (May 1975): p.12.

³ Russell E. Dickinson to Associate Director, Management and Operations, January 13, 1978, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621o Humpback Whale Regulations.

⁴ Delphine Haley, "A Floating Family Follows the Whales," Defenders: Magazine of Defenders of Wildlife vol.53, no.2 (April 1978): pp.86-87; Charles and Virginia Jurasz, "Humpback Whales in Southeastern Alaska," in Alaska Whales and Whaling (Anchorage, 1978), p.127.

⁵ Charles M. Jurasz to National Park Service, March 17, 1980, and Gregory P. Streveler to Files, August 11, 1975, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621e Humpback Whale Sea Search Proposal and Contract.

⁶ Gregory P. Streveler to Files, July 2, 1977, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621e Humpback Whale Sea Search Proposal and Contract.

⁷ Charles and Virginia Jurasz and Greg Streveler, "Whale Management Report," p.5, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 7/23, file Whale Report 1979, 1978; Charles M. Jurasz to National Park Service, March 17, 1980, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621e Humpback Whale Sea Search Proposal and Contract; Frederick C. Dean, "Glacier Bay Humpback Whale Update," Alaska Conservation Review, vol.20 (Summer-Fall 1979), p.6.

⁸ Charles M. Jurasz to National Park Service, March 17, 1980, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621e Humpback Whale Sea Search Proposal and Contract.

⁹ Regional Chief Scientist to Associate Regional Director, no date, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621f Humpback Whale Sea Search Correspondence and Review.

¹⁰ John G. Dennis, Washington Office of the National Park Service, Wildlife Division, personal communication with author, March 17, 1992.

¹¹ Center News, February 22, 1980.

¹² Darryll R. Johnson, et al., Social Science Perspectives on Visitor Use and Management of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, a special report prepared for the National Park Service, Department of the Interior, 1990, Section 3, p.2.

¹³ Southeast Alaska Empire, May 5, 1978.

¹⁴ Superintendent's annual report for 1977, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 19/22, file A2621; Briefing statement on Humpback Whales of Glacier Bay, January 13, 1978, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621o.

¹⁵ Temple A. Reynolds to Superintendent, January 29, 1979, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 7/23, file GLBA Glacier Bay Lodge.

¹⁶ Bob Howe to John Chapman, April 9, 1979, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 19/22, file A3615 Complaints GLBA; Seattle Times, March 11, 1979; Bruce Paige interview.

¹⁷ Streveler, interview; Howe, interview.

¹⁸ Southeast Alaska Empire, May 22, 1979; Charles and Virginia Jurasz and Greg Streveler, "Whale Management Report," January 1979, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 7/23, file Whale Report 1979, 1978.

¹⁹ Superintendent to Dr. George Harry, July 17, 1979, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621i Humpback Whale Accoustical Studies BBN.

²⁰ Handwritten notes (seven pages), July 16, 1979, ARO, copy provided to the author by Gary M. Vequist.

²¹ Andrew R. Gifford to Harry Rietze, July 27, 1979, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621o.

²² Will Anderson to John Chapman, July 25, 1979, Dean Ehrich to John Chapman, July 30, 1979, Stanley B. McDonald to John Chapman, August 17, 1979, and Robert Giersdorf to John Chapman, August 22, 1979, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 12/23, file N1621 GLBA 1979.

²³ Press release, September 20, 1979, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 12/23, file N1621 Whales GLBA 1979.

²⁴ Paul A. Larson to Associate Regional Director, September 11, 1979, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 12/22, file A2623 Trip Reports GLBA.

²⁵ Another possibility was that closure of Glacier Bay would increase tourism revenues, since cruise ships would have to substitute other southeast Alaska ports of call where passengers could spend money. But this argument was not advanced at the time.

²⁶ Seattle Times, October 21, 1979.

²⁷ John F. Chapman to Area Director, September 26, 1979, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621o Humpback Whale Regulations; Associate Director to Area Director and Regional Director, December 5, 1979, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621i Humpback Whale Acoustical Studies BBN.

²⁸ Ira J. Hutchinson to Stanley B. McDonald, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 12/23, file N1621 Whales GLBA 1979.

²⁹ The most detailed discussion of a research strategy occurred in October and is recorded in "Humpback Whales in Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska," Report on an Interagency Review Meeting Seattle, Washington on 12-13 October, 1979, sponsored by the Marine Mammal Commission, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 12/23, file N1621 Whales GLBA 1979.

³⁰ Chief, Division of Natural Resources (WASO) to Associate Director, May 14, 1981, Washington Office of the National Park Service (WASO), wildlife division files.

³¹ Russell E. Dickinson to Director, Fish and Wildlife Service, July 8, 1982, WASO, wildlife division files.

³² Terry L. Leitzell to John Chapman, December 3, 1979, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621i Humpback Whale Acoustical Studies BBN.

³³ H. Clifton Eames, Jr. to John Chapman, April 7 and November 13, 1980, and Sherrard Coleman to John Chapman, July 8, 1980, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 12/23, file W42 GLBA Whale Regs. Small Vessels Public Comments; Friends of Glacier Bay Whale Management Recommendations, December 1980, GLB1A, administrative files, file A16 Friends of Glacier Bay.

³⁴ Musiel told Chapman that members of the industry discussed a collective strategy, including research funding, in March 1980. John F. Chapman to Area Director, May 20, 1980, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621n Humpback Whales tourist industry input.

³⁵ Quoted in T.H. Watkins, "The Perils of Expedience," Wilderness, vol.54, no.191, (Winter 1990): p.30.

³⁶ H.J. Musiel to James Watt, April 27, 1981, and Ted Stevens, Frank Murkowski and Don Young to James Watt, March 26, 1981, and G. Ray Arnett to Ted Stevens, July 9, 1981, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621u Humpback Whales tourist industry input.

³⁷ Juneau Empire, September 2, 1982.

³⁸ John Chapman to Michael Tillman, September 21, 1982, ARO, administrative files, file N22 Research Programs--Humpback Whales GLBA; Juneau Empire, March 17, 1983.

³⁹ Anchorage Times, December 21, 1982.

⁴⁰ Michael Frome, Regreening the National Parks, (Tucson, 1992), pp.109-110.

⁴¹ Anchorage Daily News, March 19, 1983.

⁴² Streveler, interview.

⁴³ Report of a meeting to review research concerning humpback whales in Glacier Bay and nearby waters in southeastern Alaska, May 19-20, 1983, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621j Humpback Whale Research Review Meetings.

⁴⁴ William G. Gordon to Roger Contor, June 22, 1983, ARO, concessions management files, file GLBA Whale Protection/Regulations.

⁴⁵ Robert E. Howe to Michael Tollefson, May 17, 1984, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621r Humpback Whale Public Comment 1984 Regulations.

⁴⁶ Wayne Hall to Roger Contor, September 11, 1983 and September 4, 1984, GLBA, administrative files, file N1621t Humpback Whale Environmental Group Input.

⁴⁷ Mike Modrrzynski, "Back-country Ranger," Alaska Magazine (February 1984): p.74.

⁴⁸ C. Scott Baker et al., "Population Characteristics and Migration of Summer and Late-Season Humpback Whales (Megaptera Novaeangliae) in Southeastern Alaska," Marine Mammal Science (October 1985), pp.304-323; C. Scott Baker et al., "Migratory Movement and Population Structure of Humpback Whales (Megaptera Novoaangliae) in the Central and Eastern North Pacific," Marine Ecology Progress Series, 1986, Volume 31, No.2: pp.105-119.

⁴⁹ C. Scott Baker and Gary M. Vequist, "Humpback Whales in Glacier Bay, Alaska: A long-term history of habitat use," October 9, 1987, p.2, 10, ARO, concession management files, file GLBA Cruise Ship Task Force--1989.

⁵⁰ Anchorage Times, November 9, 1987.

¹ Walt Blackadar, "Caught up in a Hell of White Water," Sports Illustrated, vol.37, no.7 (August 14, 1972): pp.43-50.

² Ernest W. Mueller to John R. McGuire, April 25, 1973, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Alsek River Management Plan.

³ Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3rd rev. ed. (New Haven, 1982), pp.333-337.

⁴ Douglas G. Warnock to LeRoy K. Johnson, September 3, 1980, ARO, administrative files, file C3823.

⁵ Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Alsek River Visitor Use Management Plan, (Washington, 1989), p.3.

⁶ Douglas G. Warnock to Leroy K. Johnson, September 3, 1980, ARO, administrative files, file C3823.

⁷ Howard R. Wagner to Ted Stevens, November 3, 1980, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Alsek River Management Plan.

⁸ "Interim River Management Plan: Alsek-Tatshenshini, Glacier Bay National Monument," NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0017, box 7/23, file Glacier Bay General.

⁹ Johnson, et al., Social Science Perspectives on Visitor Use and Management of Glacier Bay National Park.

¹⁰ Marvin Jensen interview with author, tape recording, April 9, 1992.

¹¹ Malcolm Moore, "Ocean Kayaking in Glacier Bay," Appalachia, no.163 (December 15, 1976): pp.37-45.

¹² Seattle Times, March 20, 1983.

¹³ Brad Matsen, "Floating Lunch on Alaska's Glacier Bay," Alaskafest (July 1979): p.29.

¹⁴ Juneau Empire, July 10, 1991.

¹⁵ Darryll R. Johnson, A Statistical Summary of Selected Data from the 1978 Backcountry User Survey, Glacier Bay National Monument (Seattle, 1979), passim; Darryll R. Johnson, Patricia Gonzalez and Gary M. Vequist, Social Science Perspectives on Visitor Use and Management of Glacier Bay National Park (Seattle, 1990).

¹⁶ Kevin Agpar to files, [1984], GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Alsek River Management (Public Involvement 1984-present). The second backcountry user survey in 1984 marked the first time that a unit of the national park system acquired data that could be used to deduce changes in visitor attitudes toward wilderness over time.

¹⁷ John F. Chapman to Marty Behr, April 7, 1980, ARO, administrative files, file C3823.

¹⁸ Bear Management Plan, [1978], ARO, administrative files, file N1615 Management of Natural Resources; Superintendent's Annual Report, 1978, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 19/22, file A2621.

¹⁹ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1981, GLBA, administrative files, file A2621 Reports Annual.

²⁰ Gary Vequist, "Management of Beach Camping to Reduce Human/Bear Conflict," file report, March 30, 1987, GLBA, administrative files, file Bear Management Glacier Bay.

²¹ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1988, GLBA, administrative files, file A2621 Reports Annual. The closure was repeated and lengthened to two months in 1991.

²² Janet Warburton, "A Background Survey of the Distribution, Movements, and Habitat of the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) in the West Arm of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve," file report, GLBA, administrative files, file N1427c Brown Bears.

²³ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1989, GLBA, administrative files, file A2621 Reports Annual.

²⁴ Juneau Empire, July 10, 1991.

²⁵ Marvin Jensen interview with author, tape recording, April 9, 1992, Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

²⁶ John F. Chapman to Jack Blackwell, March 4, 1983, GLBA, administrative files, file A44 Memoranda of Agreement USFS.

²⁷ Alaska Department of Fish and Game, "Critical Habitat Proposal--1975," NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, box 47/51, file LSD Glacier Bay Addition.

²⁸ Wildlife Report for Proposed Dry Bay Management Area, NAAR, RG 79, 79-83-F0007, box 47/51, file LSD Glacier Bay Addition.

²⁹ Wildlife Report for Proposed Dry Bay Management Area, [1973], NAAR, RG 79, 79-83F-0007, box 47/51, file LSD Glacier Bay addition recreation uses.

³⁰ Statement for Management, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska, GLBA, administrative files, file D18.

³¹ Gary Vequist, "Scientific Use of Glacier Bay," in A Century After Muir: The Scientifc Adventure, Proceedings of the First Glacier Bay Science Symposium, September 23-26, 1983 (Atlanta, Georgia: Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Science Publications Office, 1984), p.52.

³² Friends of Glacier Bay newsletter, November 3, 1983, GLBA, administrative files, file A18 Friends of Glacier Bay.

³³ A.M. Milner and J.D. Wood, Jr., eds., Proceedings of the Second Glacier Bay Science Symposium, September 19-22, 1988, Glacier Bay Lodge, Alaska (Atlanta, Georgia: Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Science Publications Office), p.165.

³⁴ Stewart L. Udall, "Nature Islands for the World," in First World Conference on National Parks, ed. Alexander B. Adams (Washington, D.C., 1963), p.7.

³⁵ Robert Stottlemyer, "Managing a Biosphere Reserve: Incurred Responsibilities," in Proceedings of the Second Glacier Bay Science Symposium, September 12-22, 1988, Glacier Bay Lodge, Alaska (Atlanta, Georgia: Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Science Publications Office, 1989), p.156-160, UNESCO quoted on p.157.

³⁶ A Proposal for a Comprehensive Science Program in the Alaska Region, December 1987, ARO, administrative files, file A6019.

³⁷ Ibid.

³⁸ A Proposal for a Comprehensive Science Program in the Alaska Region, December 1987, ARO, administrative files, file A6019; Superintendent's Annual Reports, 1989, 1990, GLBA, administrative files, file A2621.

³⁹ Stottlemyer, "Managing a Biosphere Reserve: Incurred Responsibilities," p.159.

⁴⁰ Boyd Evison to James M. Ridenour, October 22, 1990, ARO, administrative files, file L3023 Mining and Minerals GLBA; "Canadian Mine Poses Threat to Glacier Bay," National Parks (September/October 1990), pp.12-13; Kevin Apgar interview with author, tape recording, April 8, 1992, Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

⁴¹ James Ridenour to Aimee Lefebrve-Anglin, August 13, 1991, GLBA, copy provided to the author by Bruce Paige.

⁴² Knute Knudson, Jr. to Bernd von Droste, September 25, 1991 and October 31, 1991, with enclosures, GLBA, copies provided to the author by Bruce Paige.

⁴³ Boyd Evison to James M. Ridenour, October 22, 1990, ARO, administrative files, Folder L3023 Mining and Minerals GLBA; Apgar, interview.

⁴⁴ Anchorage Daily News, April 3, 1992.

⁴⁵ World Heritage Nomination - IUCN Technical Evaluation, p.147-150, GLBA, copy provided to the author by Bruce Paige. In 1993, the government of British Columbia proclaimed the so-called Haines Triangle area between Kluane National Park and Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve a provincial park.

¹ Alaska Department of Fisheries and Alaska Fisheries Board, Annual Report, 1949, p.33.

² Oscar T. Dick to Ben C. Miller, November 28, 1952, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 292, file 207.

³ Annual Fishery Resources Report, 1965, GLBA, administrative files, file N2621d Annual Aquatic Resources Reports.

⁴ Annual Aquatic Resources Report 1983, January 12, 1983, GLBA, administrative files, file N2621d; James R. Mackovjak, "Commercial Halibut Fishery at Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve," in Proceedings of the First Glacier Bay Science Symposium, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, September 23-26, 1983, (Atlanta, Georgia: Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Science Publications Office, 1984), p.53.

⁵ Annual Fishery Resources Report, 1965, GLBA, administrative files, file N2621d Annual Aquatic Resources Report.

⁶ Alaska Fisherman's Journal, June 1991, p.31.

⁷ "Director Conrad L. Wirth Announces New Fishery Policy for National Parks," American Forests (August 1954): p.40; Ise, Our National Park Policy, p.602.

⁸ Victor H. Cahalane to A.E. Demaray, February 4, 1941, NA, RG 79, Central Classified Files, box 2228, file 208-06.

⁹ Newton B. Drury to Director, Fish and Wildlife Service, April 29, 1941, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208.

¹⁰ The king crab industry in Alaska began as a consequence of World War II, which eliminated imports of crabmeat from Japan. "Quest for Crab," Business Week, June 19, 1943, p.68.

¹¹ Lowell Sumner to Regional Director, no date, NAPSR, RG 79, Western Region, Central Classified Files, box 293, file 208; Press Conference, August 1, 1965, Transcript in NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 3/9, file GLBA Administrative History 1938-1970; Edward A. Hummel to Director, October 20, 1965, NAPSR, RG 79, 79-90-0001, box 5/11, file Boundary Adjustments L1417 (Glacier Bay National Monument).

¹² U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Task Force on Fish Resources of the National Park Service to Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, April 4, 1979, GLBA, copy provided to the author by Bruce Paige.

¹³ Robert W. Loescher to John Chapman, June 23, 1980 and John F. Chapman to Robert W. Loescher, July 8, 1980, ARO, administrative files, file A3815.

¹⁴ Alaska Fisherman's Journal, volume 6, no.6 (June 1983), p.16.

¹⁵ Russell E. Dickenson to Don Young, February 9, 1981, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1981 correspondence.

¹⁶ Don Young to John Cook, January 12, 1981, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1981 correspondence.

¹⁷ John E. Cook to Don Young, January 28, 1981, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1981 correspondence.

¹⁸ Don Young to James G. Watt, January 25, 1982, and Associate Solicitor, Conservation and Wildlife to Director, National Park Service, May 5, 1982, NAAR, RG 79, 79-91-0001, box 7/9, file GLBA Commercial Activities; National Park Service.

¹⁹ Associate Solicitor (Parks and Recreation) to Regional Director, November 29, 1982, GLBA, active files, file jurisdiction; Joseph W. Geldhof to John Katz, May 11, 1983, GLBA, copy provided to the author by Bruce Paige.

²⁰ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1983, ARO, administrative files, file A2621; Federal Register, vol.48, no.67, April 6, 1983, p.14978-14982. The proposed regulation also prohibited airplane and snowmobile access to beaches on the outer coast and seaplane access to several lakes within the wilderness area.

²¹ Alaska Fisherman's Journal, volume 6, no.6 (June 1983), p.16.

²² "Stirring Up Trouble at Glacier Bay," National Parks (May/June 1983), p.38; "Glacier Bay fishing bill introduced," Alaska Fisherman's Journal, vol.6 (March 1983), p.15.

²³ Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska: General Management Plan (1984), p.53; Federal Register, vol.48, no.67 (April 6, 1983): p.14980.

²⁴ Friends of Glacier Bay update, March 1984, GLBA, administrative files, file A18 Friends of Glacier Bay.

²⁵ William P. Horn to William Penn Mott, Jr., September 30, 1986, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Environmental Impact Statement; Apgar, interview.

²⁶ Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Draft Environmental Impact Statement Wilderness Recommendation, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska (1988), p.85.

²⁷ 92 Stat. 166.

²⁸ 48 FR 30252 (June 30, 1983).

²⁹ Jensen, interview.

³⁰ Roy Spradley, Jr. to Deputy Under Secretary, August 12, 1983, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1983 correspondence. Emphasis in original.

³¹ Semiannual Report to Congress, 1985 and 1986, GLBA, administrative files, file A2619.

³² Jensen, interview.

³³ Summary of GLBA Fishing Management Alternatives, January 12, 1990, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1990 briefing statements.

³⁴ Executive Summary--Commercial Fishing, no date, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1990 briefing statements.

³⁵ Ibid.

³⁶ T.H. Watkins, "The Perils of Expedience," Wilderness vol.54, no.191 (Winter 1990), p.52-53.

³⁷ Jensen, interview.

³⁸ Marvin Jensen to Boyd Evison, November 8, 1988, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Environmental Impact Statement.

³⁹ William Penn Mott, Jr. to Assistant Secretary of Fish and Wildlife and Parks, December 20, 1988, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Environmental Impact Statement.

⁴⁰ Marvin Jensen to Boyd Evison, November 8, 1988, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 Environmental Impact Statement.

⁴¹ See for example Rosemary Enderle (Chairman, Citizens of Elfin Cove) to Boyd Evison, March 23, 1990, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1990 correspondence.

⁴² Gregory P. Streveler, "Thoughts on Consumptive Use of Glacier Bay NP," March 8, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1989 correspondence.

⁴³ Briefing statement, July 12, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 Correspondence 1989.

⁴⁴ Superintendent's Annual Report, 1990, GLBA, administrative files, file A2621.

⁴⁵ Federal Register, vol.56, no.150 (August 5, 1991): p.37262-37265.

⁴⁶ George Gmelch, "Resource Use in Glacier Bay National Preserve," file report, GLBA, library collection, 1982, p.59; Terry Johnson, "Yakutat Setnetters Value Their Lifestyle," National Fisherman (January 1988): pp.5-8.

⁴⁷ George Gmelch, "Caught in the Middle," Natural History vol. vol.99, no.9 (September 1990), pp.32-37.

⁴⁸ Kathryn Routsky Cohen to Ken Schoenberg, August 20, 1982, GLBA, administrative files, file A4415 Cooperative Agreements--General.

⁴⁹ John Chapman to Dan Huff, September 20, 1981, GLBA, administrative files, file D18 General Management Plan File I.

⁵⁰ Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, General Management Plan, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve (1984), pp.71-72.

⁵¹ Robert Peterson to Ted Stevens, September 10, 1985, ARO, administrative files, file L30 ANILCA Commercial Fishing; Semiannual Report to Congress, 1986, GLBA, administrative files, file A2619 Reports--Semiannual. The Park Service also considered a proposal in 1983 to build a second fish processing plant at Dry Bay, drafted an environmental assessment, and decided against it a year later.

¹ Watkins, "The Perils of Expedience," p.54; Bart Koehler to Marvin Jensen, June 28, 1989, GLBA, administrative files, file A18 Southeast Alaska Conservation Council.

² Congress, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Land Planning and Policy in Alaska Recommendations Concerning National Interest Lands, report prepared by the Joint Federal State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, 93rd Cong., 2d sess., 1974, Committee Print, p.12.

³ Yupiktak Bista, A Report on Subsistence and the Conservation of the Yupik Life-style (Yupiktak Bista, 1974), p.6.

⁴ Ottar Brox, "`Conservation' and `Destruction' of Traditional Culture," in Circumpolar Problems: Habitat, Economy, and Social Relations in the Arctic, edited by Gosta Berg (Oxford, 1973), p.41.

⁵ Fairbanks Daily News Miner, August 9, 1990.

⁶ Raymond Dasmann, "Toward a Dynamic Balance of Man and Nature," The Ecologist, vol.6, no.1 (January 1976): p.3.

⁷ Raymond F. Dasmann, "National Parks, Nature Conservation, and `Future Primitive,'" The Ecologist, vol.6, no.5 (June 1976): pp.164-167, quotation on p.166.

⁸ U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Hearings on Alaska Natural Resource Issues, 95th Cong. 1st sess., June 17 and 20, 1977, p.137.

⁹ T.Stell Newman, "Subsistence Policy Issues," November 18, 1975, Robert Belous and T. Stell Newman, "Draft Policy Guidelines: Subsistence Uses of New National Park Service Areas in Alaska," April 12, 1977, "Policy Guidelines for Subsistence Use of Natural Resources on Proposed National Wildlife Refuges and National Parks in Alaska," July 5, 1977, and "Title VII--Subsistence," December 7, 1977, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 8/22, file L3035 subsistence.

¹⁰ Richard K. Nelson, Kathleen H. Mautner, and G. Ray Bane, Tracks in the Wildland: A Portrayal of Koyukon and Nunamiut Subsistence, University of Alaska Fairbanks Press, 1982; "Summary of Original Research on Subsistence Issue," anonymous memorandum, no date, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 8/22, file S86 subsistence (general correspondence) L3035.

¹¹ "Title VII--Subsistence," (anonymous memorandum), December 7, 1977, NAAR, RG 79, 79-88-0005, box 8/22, file L3035 subsistence; Mark Trautwein, "Alaska Lands Bill Nears House Floor," March 29, 1978, Lloyd Meeds Papers, UW, MS 2900-7, box 8, file Alaska lands.

¹² 94 Stat. 2422.

¹³ U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands, Hearings on Inclusion of Alaska Lands Part 13, 95th Cong, 1st sess., August 9, 1977, p.45.

¹⁴ Edward K. Thomas to Ted Stevens, September 1, 1988, GLBA, active files, file subsistence. See also the interpretation of ANILCA in Birch, Horton, Bittner & Cherot to James M. Ridenour, May 22, 1991, GLBA, active files, file commercial fishing/subsistence. According to the report of the Alaska Native Review Commission (1985), ANILCA's reference to cultural existence marked a departure from the assimilationist thrust of ANCSA and a return to the federal tradition of protecting Native subsistence rights. But stronger legislation is required "if subsistence is to remain a permanent feature of Native life and culture." Berger, Village Journey p.64.

¹⁵ U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands, Hearings on Inclusion of Alaska Lands Part 8, 95th Cong., 1st sess., July 5, 1977, p.44.

¹⁶ John Borbridge, Jr. to Secretary of Agriculture, March 13, 1978, UW, Lloyd Meeds Papers, MS 2900-7, box 8, file Alaska lands.

¹⁷ Schroeder and Kookesh, Subsistence Harvest and Use of Fish and Wildlife Resources and the Effects of Forest Management in Hoonah, Alaska, p.14.

¹⁸ Resource Manager to Superintendent, November 3, 1986, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1986 correspondence.

¹⁹ Superintendent's Narrative Annual Report 1987 and 1988, ARO, administrative files, file A2621.

²⁰ Resource Manager to Superintendent, November 3, 1986, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1986 correspondence.

²¹ Edward K. Thomas to Ted Stevens, September 1, 1988, GLBA, active files, file subsistence. (Facsimile dated September 7, 1988.)

²² David Spirtes to Marv Jensen, no date, GLBA, active files, file subsistence.

²³ Richard J. Stenmark to Ted Stevens, February 2, 1989, GLBA, active files, file subsistence.

²⁴ Clarence Summers to Lou Waller, no date, GLBA, active files, file subsistence; Marvin Jensen to Don W. Collinsworth, May 22, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1989 correspondence.

²⁵ Chief, Resource Management to Superintendent, April 4, 1989, GLBA, active files, file subsistence.

²⁶ Marvin Jensen to Don W. Collinsworth, May 22, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1989 correspondence.

²⁷ Don W. Collinsworth to Richard J. Stenmark, June 16, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1989 correspondence.

²⁸ Anchorage Daily News, June 26, 1989. A note from John Quinley to Marvin Jensen attached to this newsclipping references Jensen's position. This is in GLBA, active files, file subsistence.

²⁹ Anchorage Times, July 26, 1989.

³⁰ Bart Koehler and Steven E. Kallick to Marvin Jensen, June 28, 1989, GLBA, administrative files, file A18 Southeast Alaska Conservation Council.

³¹ Anchorage Times, June 30, 1989.

³² Anchorage Times, July 19, 1989.

³³ Marvin Jensen to files, July 19, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1989 correspondence.

³⁴ Marvin Jensen to Robert W. Loescher, October 27, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1989 correspondence.

³⁵ Clarence Summers to Lou Waller, November 8, 1989, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1989 correspondence.

³⁶ Juneau Empire, June 6, 1990.

³⁷ Marvin Jensen to Don W. Collinsworth, May 7, 1990, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1990 correspondence.

³⁸ Boyd Evison to Don Collinsworth, May 7, 1990, GLBA, active files, file N1625 1990 correspondence.

³⁹ Juneau Empire, June 6, 1990.

⁴⁰ Marvin Jensen interview with author, tape recording, April 9, 1992.

⁴¹ Edward K. Thomas to Donald E. Young, April 26, 1990 (and Resolution 90/91-47, GLBA, active files.

⁴² Bart Koehler to Ted Stevens, Frank Murkowski, Don Young, and Steve Cowper, May 29, 1990, GLBA, active files.

⁴³ Marvin Jensen to Files, September 10, 1990, GLBA, administrative files, Folder A18 Friends of Glacier Bay; Alaska Task Force annual meeting, July 21, 1990, and Allen E. Smith to Bart Koehler, December 21, 1990, GLBA, active files.

⁴⁴ Superintendent to Regional Director, March 15, 1991, GLBA, administrative files, file A18 Southeast Alaska Conservation Council.

⁴⁵ Litigation Report, Alaska Wildlife Alliance v. Jensen, et. al., no date, ARO, administrative files, Folder L-30 ANILCA Commercial Fishing (GLBA); Marvin Jensen interview with author, tape recording, April 9, 1992.

⁴⁶ Anchorage Times, October 11, 1990.

⁴⁷ Alaska Fisherman's Journal, June 1991.

¹ Gary Vequist interview with author, tape recording, December 16, 1992, Rasmuson Library, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

² James Ridenour to Frank Murkowski, November 22, 1989, ARO, administrative files, file A38.

³ Frank Murkowski, Ted Stevens, and Don Young to Manuel Lujan, Jr., May 22, 1989, and Acting regional director to Director, July 27, 1989, ARO, concession management files, file GLBA Cruise Ships.

⁴ Briefing statement on cruise ship management policy, no date, ARO, concession management files.

⁵ Cruise Ship Task Force to Director, July 27, 1989, ARO, Concessions Management files, file GLBA Cruise Ship Task Force--1989.

⁶ Frank Murkowski to Marvin Jensen, December 8, 1988, ARO, copy provided to author by Gary Vequist.

⁷ Gary Vequist interview with author, tape recording, December 16, 1992.

⁸ Steven Pennoyer to Marvin Jensen, October 5, 1989, ARO, copy provided to author by Gary Vequist.

⁹ Steven Pennoyer to Boyd Evison, May 4, 1990, ARO, copy provided to author by Gary Vequist. See also Pennoyer's comment on NPS accountability in Steven Pennoyer to Barbara Haggerty, September 6, 1991, GLBA, administrative files, D18 Vessel Management Plan.

¹⁰ Tamra Faris to Files, August 14, 1991, GLBA, administrative files, D18 Vessel Management Plan.

¹¹ Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Vessel Management Plan Workbook II, November 1991.

¹² Marvin Jensen interview with author, tape recording, April 9, 1992.

¹³ Juneau Empire, June 19, 1992.

¹⁴ Jack Morehead to James Ridenour, August 14, 1992, ARO, copy provided to the author by Gary Vequist.

¹⁵ Ketchikan Daily News, October 8, 1992.

¹⁶ Juneau Empire, October 22, 1992.

¹⁷ Anchorage Daily News, October 22, 1992.

¹⁸ Ibid.

¹⁹ William R. Catton, Jr., "Social and Behavioral Aspects of the Carrying Capacity of Natural Environments," in Behavior and the Natural Environment, edited by Irwin Altman and Joachim F. Wohlwill, vol.6 of Human Behavior and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research (New York, 1983), p.269-303.