Mesa Verde Administrative History

A. Civilian Conservation Corps

For some years the Park Service officials at Mesa Verde had been confronted with the condition of overcrowding on the small space of Chapin Mesa formed by the bifurcation of Spruce Tree Canyon. That the existing improvements were no longer adequate to care for the ever-increasing number of park visitors was a recognized fact. Under the existing arrangement crowding had resulted to the point that all necessary development had to be stopped until corrections could be made to permit the required growth and enlargement of certain of the park facilities, most notably the hotel and the public campgrounds. The camp roads did not conform in alignment and standards to the system that was required to serve a proposed new and enlarged area. Roads in the Spruce Tree Camp were of but one-car width and had no structures for drainage.

To cope with the above problem, a six-year development program was prepared in 1932 in accordance with instructions contained in Public Act 612 and policies promulgated by the National Perk Service. This program, keyed to a master plan, affected every physical development centered around the Spruce Tree Camp or headquarters area. During the preparation of the development program park officials discovered much about destruction of the flora of this developed section of the park because of erosion and other natural causes, as well as destruction by carelessness or oversight on the part of visitors and employees. These details were mentioned under the six-year program simply to show the value of well-prepared advance planning. [1]

It was fortunate that the park was able to benefit from the New Deal policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Due in good part to various relief measures the park development program moved forward by leaps and bounds. It was fortunate also that there was a plan to guide park officials, as full advantage of the various relief works could not have been taken without a definite plan to follow. A hit-or-miss procedure would have rested in dissipating much of the effectiveness of the park work. However, the park officials were in a position to coordinate these programs, with a result that much of the work contemplated in the park six-year plan was already well underway by 1933, including the water development program, landscape work, relocation of roads and trails in the headquarters area, translocation of the government utility area from the Spruce Tree Camp, and many other activities. [2]

The first Emergency Conservation Work Camp was established on May 27, 1933, and continued until November 1. It was located in the grass-carpeted floor of Prater Canyon, 3/4 mile from the main entrance highway, and almost midway between the park entrance and administrative headquarters. Ample water of a quality suitable for all purposes except drinking was available at the site. Drinking water was hauled from Mancos. The land on which the camp was located was privately owned, and was leased to the government without cost.

Facilities at the camp included an electric light plant furnished by the Park Service from surplus. All structures were frame, and included mess hall, recreation hall, shower bath, officer's and foremen's barracks, and administrative building. The Park Service constructed at the site a small frame warehouse and machinery repair shed. Personnel consisted of a commanding officer, first lieutenant (regular army); medical officer, first lieutenant (reserves); welfare officer, first lieutenant (reserves); one camp superintendent, two camp cleanup foremen, two miscellaneous foremen, two landscape foremen, one supervisory mechanic, one machine operator, two miscellaneous construction foremen. The original total enrolled strength of the camp was 233 men. On July 31 the enrolled strength was 217. Later two other camps were established, at park headquarters.

Several federal agencies made possible. the establishment of the camps around the nation. The Department of Labor directed the selection of the "enrollees" the War Department set up the camps to house the men and care for their needs while they were not on the job; the Department of Agriculture and Interior planned projects and provided the necessary technical supervision.

Ritual objectives of the CCC and the National Park Service were realized signally in the conduct of the ECW program at the park. The primary needs of the park constituted a scope of diversified work projects that provided maxim opportunities for practical "on the job" vocational training and experience under competent and sympathetic supervision. Every effort was made to teach those enrollees who wished to learn some useful trade or occupation. Enrollees engaged in all park activities under the supervision of responsible park personnel, including museum and educational service, and public contact work. [3]

It is almost impossible to single out one park activity that was not affected by the help of Public Works, Emergency Construction and Emergency Construction Work money. Work of lasting and permanent character, amounting to thousand of dollars in value, and work that otherwise would have probably remained undone for many years for want of appropriations was completed in the park. The hand of the CCC was everywhere: road building, landscaping, furniture making, restoration of vegetation, pest control, development of camp sites, construction of buildings, electrical work, assisting as guides, store clerks, office clerks, mechanics, fire lookouts, fire fighters, museum work, ranger assistants, pump operators—all and a lot more were jobs performed by enrollees in the CCC—young men learning trades as they performed their work.

The extent and nature of the ECW can be seen by the resume of work done between 1933-37.

CCC programs in national parks and monuments were park programs and not camp programs. It was the responsibility of the superintendent to maintain a balanced program of approved jobs and to limit the actual work to the funds which had been alloted to the park. Construction projects were not considered, according to ECW orders, unless they were shown on the master plan of the area, except in rare and unusual cases, or when justified as being in connection with master plan proposals, existing developments or development areas. [5]

Administrative matters of the park were, of course, complicated by the various programs being carried on simultaneously. The different projects and their coordination, combined with the extensive supervision entailed by work in progress over a wide area, demanded a great deal of time.

In August 1935 the administrative jurisdiction of Mesa Verde, previously including the Wheeler and Great Sand Dunes National Monument, was further extended by the director to the Colorado, and the Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Monuments, thus greatly increasing the administrative work and responsibility of the Mesa Verde office. Due to heavy developmental programs in progress at the Colorado and Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Monuments, Park-Naturalist Paul R. Franke was appointment assistant superintendent on January 1936. [6]

B. Educational Program

During the 1930s the educational department at Mesa Verde consisted of a park naturalist, who through the summer months was assisted by one museum employee and several temporary ranger naturalists. This group interpreted for the visiting public the interesting archeological and natural features of the park. Their function was primarily that of public education and they were given immediate responsibility of the conducted field trips to the ruins; all museum work including files, records and cataloging, and the preparation and distribution of the publication known as "Mesa Verde Notes." After 1933 several enrollees of the CCC assisted in the guide and contact work during the tourist season. Several noteworthy additions were made to the educational program, but there was little deviation from the policy which had been gradually formulated by careful planning and study during the previous ten years. Appreciation of the educational program was attested to by the large number of letters received.

By the appointment of a park naturalist the scope of the educational activities was broadened. Collections of flora and fauna were made for display and research purposes, and while this phase of museum activity remained secondary to archeological exhibits, it nevertheless formed an important part of the educational program. For instance, a self-guiding nature trail was constructed in Spruce Tree Canyon, a location made ideal by the abundance and variety of flora and also by the fact that visitors were permitted the leisurely inspection of the markers and the vegetation while they were making the trip into the canyon to visit Spruce Tree Ruin. Another unique educational service was the introduction of guided nature trips to Park Point Scenic Road, a 12 mile drive from park headquarters. A trail was used to reach the top of the great promontory. Along this trail the naturalist explained the habits of the many interesting plants, including everything from the tall, gnarled fendler to the beautifully delicate, wild flowers that bordered the path. But the real thrill and climax, which was carefully arranged and tuned by the naturalist or ranger in charge, came at the end of the trail. The party emerged from a dense oak thicket, through which the trail was purposely built in order to obtain the proper effect, to the clearing on top of Park Point just as the sun was setting. The reaction of the visitors to the beauty of the scene was interesting; literally it took their breath.

Another improvement was the new campfire circle completed in June 1938, constructed at its present location on the rim of Spruce Canyon, commanding a view southward into Navajo Canyon. Advantage was taken of a natural amphitheater, and with the weather-stained sandstone seats, the surrounding forests of juniper and piñon which were left undisturbed, and careful transplanting of vegetation, the entire layout was so fitted into the landscape as to seem the result of the forces of nature, rather than the work of man. The whole atmosphere lent itself admirably to the campfire ceremonies and Indian dances which were held there each evening during the summer. Another desirable feature of this development was its isolation from the main roads in the headquarters area, and the resulting elimination of the noise of automobile and pedestrian traffic and other distractions which were annoying to speaker and listener alike. [7]

An integral part of the educational program was the museum. It made possible the visual presentation of the arts and handiwork of the prehistoric peoples, affording park visitors a full opportunity to understand and appreciate the high cultural development of the area. The education of the public, made possible through the ruins and other remains in place, was very incomplete without the vast amount of additional material contained in the museum. One supplemented the other, it being simply a case of observing in their natural surroundings the homes and architectural styles of the prehistoric peoples of the Mesa Verde, while in the museum one could see their woven materials, pottery, tools and implements, clothing, and the like.

The museum became a more important part of the educational program then before when the plan was adopted of having the ranger take his party, either before they went on the ruins trip or on their return, through the museum, where the exhibits were shown and explained, and questions answered. [8]

An allotment of $35,000 was made in 1935 by the Public Works Administration for a substantial addition to the original museum. This was completed in June 20, 1936. [9]

The enlarged museum was considered one of the finest museum structures in the Southwest. It included an entrance lobby, a reference library, six exhibition halls, an auditorium comfortably seating 175 persons, an office for the park naturalist, a classroom, two research studies, and a large basement, with adequate facilities for storage of archeological and other museum materials, for research and preparatory work on exhibits, and for photographic work. Central heating and ventilating equipment was also a feature. [10]

The educational force acted as interpreters, but to them was also entrusted the care of the ruins. They had to conduct and control the park visitors in such a way that no damage could be done at any time. It became the practice to direct the visitors first toward the guided trips so they could develop an understanding and respect for these dwellings and then to permit them to visit as many of the undeveloped sections or unexcavated ruins as they wished. A written permit was issued and the visitor was asked to confine himself to certain specified areas. This permitted placing responsibility for vandalism and also assisted in the search for any parties that might become lost in the maize of canyons.

Guided trips began at the park headquarters area. The morning caravan and trail trip consisted of a drive of seven miles along the west of Chapin Mesa. It was necessary to do considerable walking and climbing over trails, adding about one mile to the trip. Cars were used up to the points of interest and then visitors had to go on foot. The purpose of this trip was to visit the major excavated ruins that faced towards the west and were therefore shaded from the hot summer sun in the mornings. This was a guided trip, ranger-naturalists conducting parties consisting of 50 or fewer visitors. There were two scheduled times of departure, 8 a.m. and 10 a.m., but these could be scheduled at closer intervals thus taking care of a considerable travel increase. The ruins and flora and fauna encountered on the trails were the exhibits. Ruins seen and visited were Square Tower House, Earth Lodge A, Sunset House, Oak Tree House, Fire Temple, New Fire House, and Sun Temple.

In the afternoon the caravan and trail trip consisted of a drive of about 7-1/2 miles along the east side of Chapin Mesa. The climbing and walking required added about one mile to this distance. In general this trip was a sequel of the morning trip, the guides refraining from repeating the story as much as possible, and visiting ruins that were more or less shaded during the afternoon hours. Scheduled trips left at 1:30 p.m. and 3 p.m. Ruins visited were Cliff Palace and Balcony House, while views were obtained of about six other ruins.

There was a nature trail to Spruce Tree Ruin. This was a foot path leading to Spruce Tree House and about one third of a mile long. This was a self-guiding nature trail, supplying pertinent information to visitors. The nature trail was completely labelled and was in the care of a ranger-naturalist. He was also in charge of Spruce Tree House, answering all questions relative to it and the trails, and was on duty throughout the summer months. [11]

Another improvement was made in 1940 when a natural history museum was opened in the community building. The exhibits installed consisted of two wall cases, three table eases, three habitat groups and miscellaneous exhibits. These included common birds and trees of the area, fossils, insects, mounted animals, relief map, cross section of a 501 year old Ponderosa Pine, wall charts, table displays, and a special wild flower display of 24 species. [12]

In June 1941 a significant change was made in the interpretive program, dictated by the pressure of visitation. Under the revised system visitors did not have to be part of a guide-conducted motor caravan to be admitted to the ruin roads, but during the daylight hours could tour the roads according to their inclinations. A number of new view-point signs and trailside exhibits were installed, and visitors enjoyed the privilege of wandering about from one point to another, as they desired. Under the new program the only caravan trip was at 8:30 a.m. daily. Ranger-naturalists were stationed at Cliff Palace and Balcony House, and visitors were conducted through each of these ruins several times daily. This new arrangement functioned rather smoothly and at the same time relieved the jam and crowding caused by the old system during days of heavy travel. One of the reasons for changing the way of handling visitors was to spread out "use." Although the personal touch afforded by the old system of convoy was slightly reduced, the undesirable feeling of being continually herded was eliminated. [13]

C. New water development

1. Sewage problem

Through the personal interest of members of Congress and officials of the Bureau of the Budget who made an inspection of Mesa Verde in April 1931, an appropriation of $22,000 was made available for the continuation of work on a badly needed well, previous drilling of which had been halted because of lack of funds. A copious flow of potable water at high pressure was encountered in the Navajo sands at a depth of 4,200 feet, on April 3, 1933. The importance of the success of this project cannot be exaggerated, as practically every development planned for the future of Mesa Verde was dependent upon the outcome of the drilling operation. Analysis of the water was made by Harry Hommon of the Public Health Service. [14]

A reinforced concrete reservoir with a capacity of 84,000 gallons was constructed at the well site to hold the water pumped from the well, in order to keep a supply on hand, and to afford pressure for fire protection.

One of the immediate problems of Mesa Verde which had not been solved because of shortage of water was the sewer system. The sewage at the campgrounds was collected in chemical toilets. This type of toilet was also used by the Mesa Verde Park Company. There were also a large number of earth pit toilets and approximately eight cesspools, excavated in sandstone, used for taking care of the sewage from residences, ranger quarters and hospital. The wastes from the mess house were discharged into the canyon below. These pumped from the cesspools and chemical toilets were foul smelling and costly to remove; it was necessary to haul them long distances. All the tourists who were guests of the Park Company used comfort stations with chemical toilets, since there were no flush toilets or running water in any of the cabins. The cabins were scattered over an area where there were no driveways on account of trees and uneven limestone ledges, and there was no way of collecting the wastes from the slop jars in these cabins. It was necessary therefore to throw these wastes over the rim of the canyon at the rear of the cabins.

According to a sanitary engineer, the situation of collecting and disposing of sewage at Mesa Verde was the most serious problem existing in any of the national parks in relation to public health and sanitation. It was not only holding back the development of the park, but it was a serious potential health menace which had to be corrected at the earliest possible time. [15]

By 1935 the sanitary system was built and put into operation. [16]

Maintenance of an adequate water supply to ever-increasing needs continued to be the major operating problem of the park. The installation of modern plumbing and the new sewage system, the steady increase in tourist travel and park residents, and the necessity of meeting the needs of the CCC camps, the park operators, and contractors, taxed the available water supply to a point where a safe reserve could not be maintained for use in emergencies. A serious breakdown of the deep water well pumping system at any time during the summer travel season would create a critical problem. The proposed construction of a storage tank of 500,000 gallons capacity would materially aid in providing more storage, but could not be considered a solution of the water problem. [17]

2. Health menace

The water supply system consisted of the deep water well, limited storage facilities and the catchment areas. Water from the catchments was dirty and fouled by birds and small animals. The reservoirs stored the waters under the opening one of the reservoirs, dead rats, mice, lizards, and birds in all stages of decomposition were found floating in the water and the outlet was chocked with skeletons. Not less than 1% dead animals were removed. This was the water actually consumed by the Park Service families and served to a fortunately unsuspecting public.

The water from the well could not be called good. It had a temperature of 110 degrees and contained an appreciable amount of mineral matter. It clogged automobile radiators and killed plants in gardens. A single fire in one of the buildings would empty the reservoirs.

Two million gallons were required as a minimum for the area in serious emergencies, but even with this amount as a safeguard against fire, it meant exactly nothing with regard to safeguarding public health because the water was not fit to drink. Only the water from the seepage of Spruce Tree House, piped to the houses, was of good quality. Every year there was an outbreak of so-called summer complaint, of diarrhea. It was believed that this disease was traceable to pollen from an unknown source. Whatever the cause may have been, the fact remained that the government employees, the CCC and the public were exposed to serious risks.

Since there was no good water in any quantity found anywhere in or near the park, the only solution was to bring it from the La Plata Mountains, where excellent water could be had in abundance. The investment would end, for all time, Mesa Verde's crying need. Without that, the park would always remain far below the accepted standards of public health and below the standards the public had a right to expect from its government. [18]

3. Jackson Gulch Reservoir Project

Improvement of water treatment facilities was accomplished in 1939 with the construction of a chemical feeder house, a vertical pressure filter and a cooling tower. Improvement of pumping equipment was also accomplished, but the method of supplying water for the park was still extremely unsatisfactory and rapidly becoming inadequate.

Through the prompt action of the National Park Service Director in contacting the U. S. Geological Survey and the resultant cooperation of their well expert, serious consequences were averted when the deep water well pumping equipment broke down in the fall of 1938. Occurring as it did in the late fall when the number of park visitors had reached low ebb, the difficulties were not as serious as they might have been.

The suggested 500,000 gallon-capacity concrete tank, proposed by Superintendent Nusbaum in 1936, was constructed with PWA funds to provide an adequate reserve for the summer travel period when demand exceeded the pumping capacity of the well. Excavation for a 1,000,000 gallon storage tank, also with PWA funds, was started late in 1938 by CCC forces and completed in June 1940. This tank increased water storage facilities to approximately 1,750,000 gallons.

During April 1939 a survey was initiated by the Bureau of Reclamation for a proposed water line from the La Plata Mountains to the park. This project was contingent upon the construction of a dam at the Jackson Gulch site in the La Plata Mountains, as part of a water conservation project to supply irrigation water for farmers and ranchers in the Mancos Valley. If the dam was authorized, the 22-mile pipeline to the park could be seriously considered. Farfetched though they were, these plans for a gravity-flow water supply for the park were the brightest spot on the park's horizon. The serious predicament of the park could be fully realized when it was pointed out that a cessation of pumping for any reason during the summer season would necessitate closing the park and all its facilities. [19]

In 1940 the President approved the Jackson Gulch Reservoir project. Next year the Bureau of Reclamation was authorized to construct the reservoir under terms of the Wheeler-Case Act, and the appropriation on June 28 of $75,000 to the National Park Service to begin construction of the water pipe line from the West Mancos River to the park. A CCC camp had been initiated in Mancos just prior to the end of 1940. This camp would participate in the construction of the pipe line, which it was estimated would require four years to complete by CCC forces. [20]

The Mancos water project was the eighth "work relief" irrigation development approved by the President for construction by the Bureau of Reclamation. These work relief projects aimed at stabilizing the agricultural life of the regions where they were built. They employed WPA labor and CCC boys in their construction, and offered settlement opportunity for the landless and jobless.

The Mancos project was estimated to cost $1,600,000, of which $680,000 would be repaid by the farmers in not more than 40 annual installments. The cost of work relief irrigation projects was larger than the repayment ability of the lands to be directly benefited. They were partially reimbursable.

An unregulated and inadequate water supply had stifled the economic progress of Mancos Valley for years. The construction of the project, comprising 10,000 acres of land, would provide a dependable supplementary supply of storage water to protect, the valley from drought and permit more diversified farming. Besides fostering community development and economic growth, a badly needed water supply would also be made available for the Mesa Verde National Park. [21]

Everything was progressing almost too smoothly with the CCC aid when the Second World War interrupted the work at the end of 1941. At the same time the superintendent informed the director:

One thing is certain — the only thing that saved Mesa Verde from closing down last summer was the abundant rainfall that we were able to turn to good use through the catchments, so the rain was a blessing in this respect although it raised havoc with the park roads. [22]

After many delays and crisis of water shortage, the West Mancos water supply system was completed in July 1951. For the first time in its history, the park obtained an abundant supply of fine water. [23]

D. Road problems

Road building was one of the park's most important, and extensive activities. Construction projects were of the utmost importance to Mesa Verde, but they also did much to alleviate unemployment. The economic value of this construction activity to southwestern Colorado exceeded anything accomplished by local or state government or by private industry. It may be said that without the park program at Mesa Verde there would have been little or no work for labor in that section of the state during the Depression.

Park roads had received considerable improvement since 1928, being transformed from steep, narrow, almost trail-like sections, to broad, sweeping highways of safe grade and alignment. The worst danger of the old roads was the last to be corrected in the new. This was the jeopardy of mountain roads that became very slippery when wet. The danger was removed with the completion of graveling and paving of the 19 miles of entrance highway during 1933-34. [24]

In 1932 the park public works program carried an allotment for the construction of roads and trails, removal of traffic obstruction, and the like, in the circulation system of the Spruce Tree Camp area, and splendid progress was made on this project. New circulating roads to serve the Spruce Tree Plaza were surveyed, cleared, and graded, and a spur road to join the ruin roads was constructed. Old roads which were unsightly and detracted greatly from the appearance of the headquarters area were eliminated and landscaping and transplanting of trees and other vegetation entirely obliterated all scars or other evidences of their former existence. [25]

There were eight major ruins on Chapin Mesa visited by the public. Serving these ruins was a road system approximately 94 miles in length. Original construction was in the early days of the park, for the most part prior to 1921 when the vision of the builders did not exceed the maximum requirements of a few hundred cars per season. The present Cliff Palace-Balcony House loop road, following the rims of Cliff and Soda Canyons, was the one constructed in 1928. Plans were prepared in 1930 calling for the reconstruction and paving of the ruin roads to bring them to a standard comparable to the main highway. The work was imperative since the ruins were inaccessible during periods of rain while the headquarters could be reached over splendid graveled highways. By 1933 about five miles of the ruin roads had been rebuilt. Paving and gravelling of the headquarters loop and the ruin roads was done between 1935-37. [26]

Since 1928 the Bureau of Public Roads had been handling major road engineering and construction projects on the north entrance highway of the park. In 1934, Resident Engineer Hill, of the Bureau of Public Roads, reported on an intensive study of slides and settlements on the Knife Edge section, on the basis of which engineering plans were formulated and a contract awarded for major stablization work during 1937 along a specified section. [27]

There had been some discussion about building an entrance road from the south of the park through Soda Canyon, to avoid the problems of the north entrance highway. Director Cammerer noted in 1933:

We have carefully avoided the south entrance to the mesa and we still believe that this should be avoided. It is quite evident that a difficult administrative problem would develop if there were provided any sort of an entrance from the Ute Preservation. Certainly poaching and grazing of stock within the park area would be augmented. It seems to us that it would be far better to accept some added expense in procuring gravel for road surfacing than to open up the southern end of the park for entrance from the Reservation. [28]

In 1938-41, the Bureau of Public Roads made a preliminary relocation survey for a by-pass of the Knife Edge section of the entrance highway. This proposed road was to lead down Morfield Canyon approximately one and one-half miles, thence through the ridge to Prater Canyon by means of a tunnel, up Prater Canyon to its head to join the entrance highway at the west end of the Knife Edge section. Due to World War II, the imperative need for a new water system for the park, and lack of funds, this road was not constructed until 1957.

Meantime, approximately 65 percent of the road maintenance money was being spent on the short section of the Knife Edge road. With each passing year, the road became more of a problem and it was quite evident that the proposed relocation was mandatory. An encouraging step toward the accomplishment of this relocation was the procurement of an option on the two tracts of privately-owned land in Prater and Morfield Canyons which so far had effectively blocked any possibility of relocating the road. Added comfort came with the inclusion of $2,700 in the 1942 appropriation for the purchase of these lands. [29]

At the present time the problems of the Point Lookout section of the road are quite similar to those which afflicted the Knife Edge-section for so many years.

E. Accommodations

With the removal in 1932 of utility buildings from the Spruce Tree Camp area to a new location north of park headquarters, the ground at the former area was cleared for the construction of a new cabin development by the camp operator. This concessioner had been previously rather reluctant to expand facilities in the park owing to the lack of an adequate water supply. Plans were made for cottage units, a cafeteria and lunchroom, community building, bathhouse, and the like. This development was much desired and had been demanded by the public for sometime as it would furnish less expensive accommodations. [30]

Very few improvements were made by the concessioner, the Mesa Verde Park Company. This subsidiary of the Denver and Rio Grange Western Railway continued to operate Spruce Tree lodge until June 10, 1937, when the concession was taken over by a newly formed corporation operating under the name of the Mesa Verde Company. This new company was managed by Ansel F. Hall, former Chief of the Field Division of Museums and Education, National Park Service. [31]

Campgrounds were greatly Improved and expanded through the work of the CCC. For development and improvement of the campground the park followed the so-called "Meinecke plan". This plan provided space for an automobile, a fire place, a tent, and a table, with privacy insured by adequate screens; and narrow, one-way roads of circulation, with the camp sites set off at a forty-five degree angle from the circulation roads. [32]