Pu'ukohola Heiau Kaloko-Honokohau Pu'uhonua O Honaunau A Cultural History of Three Traditional Hawaiian Sites on the West Coast of Hawai'i Island

COVER

PREFACE

CHAPTER I. Before the Written Record

A. Formation and Description of the Hawaiian Archipelago
B. Origins of Hawaiian Population
C. Origins of Hawaiian Culture
D. Development of Hawaiian Culture
     1. Early Environment of the Hawaiian Islands
     2. Settlement Patterns and House Styles
     3. Material Culture
     4. Subsistence
     5. Social, Political, and Religious Organization
E. Major Aspects of Traditional Hawaiian Culture
     1. Social Organization
          a) Stratification
          b) Rights and Duties of Each Class
          c) Role of the Kapu System
     2. Settlement Patterns
          a) Location of Houses
          b) Construction Techniques
          c) Size of Residences
          d) Shelters
     3. Subsistence
          a) Marine Activities
               (1) Inshore and Offshore Fishing
                    (a) Techniques
                    (b) Religious Aspects
               (2) Aquaculture
                    (a) Fishponds
                         i) Origin
                         ii) Types and Construction
                         iii) Products and Maintenance
                         iv) Religious Aspects
                         v) Role in Hawaiian Society
                    (b) Fishtraps
          b) Agricultural Activities
               (1) Crops
               (2) Animal Husbandry
     4. Political Organization
          a) High Chiefs and their Advisors
          b) Lower Levels of Government
          c) Political Unrest
     5. Economic System
          a) Summary of Change in the Economic Structure
          b) Competition for Resources Increases
          c) Land Divisions
          d) Sharing
          e) Tribute
     6. Religion
          a) Gods
          b) Priests
          c) kapu
               (1) Purpose of System
               (2) Origins and Enforcement
               (3) Foreign Perceptions
               (4) Categories
               (5) Effects on the Population
               (6) Sanctioned Violations of System
          d) Heiau
               (1) Types and Construction
               (2) Early Descriptions
               (3) Luakini
                    (a) Origin and Use
                    (b) Design and Construction
                    (c) Features
                    (d) Placement of Features
                    (e) Rituals
                    (f) Relationship to the People
          e) Images
               (1) Function
               (2) Appearance
               (3) Types
               (4) Arrangement in Heiau
               (5) Associated Rituals
               (6) Treatment by the Hawaiians
               (7) Destruction at Overthrow of Kapu System
          f) Mortuary Practices
               (1) Burial Customs and Places of Interment
               (2) Mourning Rituals and Burial Practices
          g) Places of Refuge
     7. Recreation and Art
          a) Games and Sports
          b) Song and Dance
          c) Fine Arts
G. Hawai'i at the Time of European Contact

CHAPTER II. Early European Contact with the Hawaiian Islands

A. Captain James Cook Brings the Islands to Europe's Attention
     1. Cook Discovers the Sandwich Islands
     2. Cook Winters at Kealakekua Bay
     3. Cook's Death
B. Hawai'i Becomes an Important Pacific Port
     1. Provision Stop
     2. Northwest Coast-Canton, China, Fur Trade
     3. Military and Scientific Value
     4. Commercial Exchange Initiated

CHAPTER III. Foreign Population Grows

A. First White Residents of Hawai'i
     1. Kamehameha Detains Two Foreigners
     2. Young and Davis Adjust to Their New Life
     3. Young and Davis Aid Kamehameha's Wars of Conquest
     4. Young and Davis Conduct Business with Foreign Traders
     5. Young and Davis Settle Permanently into Hawaiian Life
     6. Young and Davis are Active in Kamehameha's Government
B. Foreigners Become Residents
C. The Impact of Foreign Influences on the Native Hawaiians
     1. James Cook, George Vancouver, and Others
     2. Diseases and Liquor
     3. New Economic System, Trade, and Technology
     4. Kapu System Weakened
     5. Population Shift and Growth of Towns
     6. New Class of Foreigners — Part-Hawaiians
     7. Facilitation of Kamehameha's Rise to Power

CHAPTER IV. Founding of the Hawaiian Kingdom

A. Reign of King Kamehameha
     1. Political Warfare in Ancient Hawai'i
     2. Kamehameha's Rise to Power, 1758-1819
     3. Changes in Land Tenure, Government, and Hierarchal Structure
          (a) Land Tenure
          (b) Government Structure
     4. Foreign Relations
     5. New Era in Hawaiian Commerce
          a) Honolulu Becomes a Major Port
          b) Sandalwood Trade

CHAPTER V. Changes After the Death of Kamehameha

A. Liholiho (Kamehameha II) Ascends the Throne
B. Overthrow of the Kapu System
     1. Traditional Religious System Kept Intact During Kamehameha's Reign
     2. Kamehameha's Death Provides Opportunity for Religious Reform
     3. Liholiho Abolishes the Kapu System
     4. Some Vestiges of Old Practices Remain
     5. Discussion on the Overthrow of the Kapu System
     6. Effects of the Overthrow of the Kapu System
     7. Death of Kamehameha II C. Arrival of New Religion
     1. Missionaries Come to Hawai'i
     2. Establishment of Mission Stations
D. Literacy Increases
E. Changes in Government
F. Development of a Hawaiian Constitution
G. Changes in Food Production
H. Changes in Trade Patterns
     1. Sandalwood Trade
     2. Effects on Society
     3. Whaling Industry
     4. Honolulu Becomes Major Distribution Center
I. Conflicting Values and Foreign Relations
J. Great Mahele
K. Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

CHAPTER VI. Development and Human Activity on the West Coast of the Island of Hawai'i

A. Population
B. Water Resources
C. Volcanic Activity
D. Political History
E. Settlement Patterns
F. Subsistence Patterns
G. Kona District
     1. Pre-European Contact Period
     2. European Contact Period
     3. North and South Kona
          a) Historical Descriptions
          b) Settlement Patterns
          c) Towns and Sites
H. Kohala District
     1. Pre-European Contact Period
     2. European Contact Period
     3. Historical Descriptions
     4. Settlement Patterns and Subsistence Activities
          a) South Kohala
          b) North Kohala
          c) Interior

CHAPTER VII. Pu'ukohola Heiau National Historic Site

A. Setting of the Park
     1. Village of Kawaiha
     2. Historical Accounts of Kawaihae Bay Area
     3. Historical Appearance and Activities of Kawaihae
          a) Fishponds
          b) Salt Pans
          c) Sandalwood Trade
     4. Missionary Activities at Kawaihae
     5. Cattle Industry in the Kawaihae-Waimea Area
     6. Agricultural Activity in the Kawaihae-Waimea Area
     7. Decline of Kawaihae
     8. "Modern" Kawaihae Village
B. Pu'ukohola Heiau
     1. Traditional Construction History
          a) Hawai'i Island Politics at European Contact
          b) Kamehameha Begins His Bid for Power
          c) Kamehameha is Instructed to Build a Heiau
          d) Construction of the Heiau Begins
          e) Warfare Interrupts Construction
          f) Kamehameha Becomes Undisputed Ruler of Hawai'i Island
          g) Kamehameha Unites the Hawaiian Islands
     2. Historical Descriptions
          a) Introductory Remarks
          b) Archibald Menzies, 1792-94
          c) Samuel Patterson, 1804-5
          d) Otto von Kotzebue, 1816-17
          e) Louis de Freycinet, 1819
          f) Missionaries Hiram Bingham, Henry Cheever, 1820
          g) Reverend William Ellis, 1823
          h) Reverend Artemas Bishop, 1826
          i) John Kirk Townsend, 1834-37
          j) James Jarves, 1837-42
          k) Gorham D. Gilman, 1844-45
          l) Account, 1847
          m) Samuel S. Hill, 1848
          n) Charles-Victor Crosnier de Varigny, 1855
          o Lady Jane Franklin, 1861
          p) Clara K. Whelden, 1864
          q) Isabella Bird, 1873
          r) Frank Vincent, Jr., ca. 1875
          s) John F. G. Stokes, 1906
          t) Thomas Thrum, 1908
          u) Gerard Fowke, 1922
          v) Oral Interview, 1919-20
     3. Modern Description
C. Mailekini Heiau
     1. Traditional Construction History
     2. Mailekini Becomes a Fort
     3. Historical Descriptions
          a) Reverend William Ellis, 1823
          b) John Kirk Townsend, 1834-37
     4. Later Descriptions
          a) John F. G. Stokes, 1906
          b) Thomas Thrum, 1908
          c) Deborah Cluff et al., 1969
D. Hale-o-Kapuni Heiau
     1. Shark Heiau
     2. Historical Descriptions
          a) Abraham Fornander
          b) Theophilus Davies, 1859
          c) Oral Tradition
E. Stone Leaning Post (Leaning Rock of Alapa'i, Alapai'i's Chair, Kamehameha's Chair)
F. Pelekane (King's Residence)
     1. Significance
     2. Historical Descriptions
          a) Louis de Freycinet, 1819
          b) Jacques Arago, 1819
          c) Madame de Freycinet, 1819
          d) L. I. Duperrey, 1819
          e) Miscellaneous Resources in Area
G. Stone Walls Associated with Pu'ukohola Heiau
H. World War II Military Remains
I. Other Resources
J. John Young Homestead
     1. Lands Given to John Young by Kamehameha
     2. Kawaihae Land Divisions
     3. Pahukanilua
          a) Boundaries
          b) Lower Portion
          c) Upper Portion
               (1) Early Maps of Homestead
               (2) Young's Accounts of Construction Activities
               (3) Description by Isaac Iselin, 1807
               (4) Descriptions by Crew of Rurick, 1816
               (5) Description by Arago, 1819
               (6) Description by Laura Judd, 1828
               (7) Missionary Descriptions
               (8) Use of the Homestead After Young's Death
     4. Structural Remains
          a) Upper Portion of Pahukanilua
          b) Lower Portion of Pahukanilua
K. Significance of Resources Within Pu'ukohola Heiau National Historic Site
     1. Establishment of the National Historic Site
     2. Pu'ukohola Heiau
     3. Mailekini Heiau
     4. Hale-o-Kapuni Heiau
     5. John Young Homestead
     6. Other Resources
L. Contributing and Non-Contributing Elements
M. Threats to Resources
N. Management Recommendations
     1. Analysis of Pu'ukohola Heiau
          a) Original or Rebuilt Structure
          b) Extent of Use
          c) Original Appearance
               (1) Archibald Menzies, 1792-94
               (2) Samuel Patterson, 1804-5
               (3) Otto von Kotzebue, 1816-17
               (4) Jacques Arago, 1819
               (5) Reverend Hiram Bingham, 1820
               (6) Reverend William Ellis, 1823
               (7) Gorham D. Gilman, 1844-45
               (8) Account, 1847
               (9) Samuel S. Hill, 1848
               (10) Charles-Victor Crosnier de Varigny, 1855
               (11) John F. G. Stokes, 1906
               (12) Gerard Fowke, 1922
               (13) Cluff et al., 1969
               (14) Edmund J. Ladd, 1986
          d) Traditional Plans and Furnishings of Luakini According to Native Historians and Other Scholars
               (1) David Kalakaua
               (2) David Malo
               (3) William Davenport
               (4) Samuel Kamakau
               (5) John Papa I'i
               (6) William Alexander
               (7) Wendell Bennett
               (8) Valerio Valeri
          e) Comparative Historical Descriptions of Luakini
               (1) George Vancouver, 1792-94
               (2) Louis de Freycinet, 1819
          f) Illustrations of Luakini
          g) Variability of Heiau Styles
          h) Known Features of Pu'ukohola Heiau
     2. Treatment of Resources
          a) Introductory Remarks
          b) Management Options
               (1) Preservation and Stabilization
               (2) Restoration and Reconstruction
               (3) Interpretive Options
O. Further Research and Interpretive Needs

CHAPTER VIII. Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park

A. Setting
B. Chronology of Settlement
     1. A.D. 900s-1700s
     2. Historic Period (1800-1900)
     3. Historic Period (1960s-Present)
C. Social and Political Structure of the Prehistoric Community
D. Relationship of Prehistoric Kaloko with Neighboring Ahupua'a
E. Summary of Prehistoric Development
F. Historical Associations
     1. Earliest Reference to Kaloko-Honokohau Area
     2. Use as Burial Ground for Ali'i
     3. Traditional Burial Site of Bones of Kamehameha
     4. Association with Kamehameha II
G. Description of Resources
     1. Fishponds
          a) Kaloko Fishpond
          b) 'Aimakapa Fishpond
          c) 'Ai'opio Fishtrap
     2. Heiau
          a) Maka'opio Heiau
          b) Pu'u'oina (Hale-o-Mano) Heiau
     3. Graves
     4. Trail Systems
     5. Ahu (Cairns)
H. Significance of Resources and Establishment of a National Historical Park
I. Archeological Research Accomplished
     1. Honokohau Area
     2. Kaloko Area
          a) Robert Renger's Work
          b) New Study by Ross Cordy, Joseph Tainter, Robert Renger, and Robert Hitchcock
J. Contributing and Non-Contributing Elements
K. Threats to Resources
L. Management Recommendations
M. Further Research Needs

CHAPTER IX. Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park

A. Setting
B. Description of Refuge Area
C. Development of Honaunau Ahupua'a
D. Places of Refuge
     1. Types
     2. Origins
     3. Historical Associations with Hebraic Cities of Refuge
     4. Use Within Hawaiian Culture
     5. Use During Reign of Kamehameha
E. Pu'uhonua o Honaunau
     1. Early Descriptions by Europeans
          a) Cook Expedition, 1779
          b) Archibald Menzies, 1793
          c) John Papa I'i, 1817
          d) Reverend William Ellis, 1823
          e) Andrew Bloxam, 1825
          f) Reverend Rowland Bloxam, 1825
          g) Lord G. A. Byron, 1825
          h) James Macrae, 1825
          i) Laura Judd, 1828
          j) Later References to the Site
     2. Early History
          a) Original Chronology of Pu'uhonua Development
          b) New Archeological Data Forces Revisions to Chronology
     3. Later History of the Pu'uhonua and of Hale-o-Keawe
     4. Early Study, Restoration, and Archeological Efforts
F. Description of Resources
     Pu'uhonua Area
          1. Palace Grounds
          2. Pahu tabu (Sacred Enclosure), Great Wall
               a) Early Descriptions
               b) Construction Details
               c) Restoration Efforts
               d) John F.G. Stokes's Observations
               e) Later Stabilization Efforts
          3. Hale-o-Keawe
               a) Early Descriptions
               b) Function
               c) Traditional Stories Surrounding the Hale-o-Keawe
               d) Human Sacrifices
               e) Hale o Lono
               f) Decline of the Mausoleum
               g) The NPS Undertakes Reconstruction of the Mausoleum
          4. Hale o Puni
          5. "Old Heiau ("Ancient Heiau")
          6. 'Ale'ale'a Heiau
          7. Keoua Stone
          8. Ka'ahumanu Stone
          9. Hale o Papa (Heiau No Na Wahine)
          10. Miscellaneous Resources
               a) 'Akahipapa Flat
               b) Shelf in South Section of the Great Wall
               c) Walled Enclosure Within the Sanctuary
               d) Konane Stone
               e) Petroglyph
               f) Pohaku Nana La (Stone for Looking at the Sun)
               g) Spring
               h) Makaloa Pools
               i) Kekuai'o Pool
               j) Artificial Concavities in the Lava
               k) Stone Image Named Hawa'e
               l) Cup Marks
               m) Fisherman's Shrine (Ku'ula)
               n) The Beach Site (Site B-107)
               o) Burials
     Inland Honaunau and Keamoali'i
          1. Animal Pens, Graves, and Trails
          2. Holua
          3. House Lots
     North Keokea Ahupua'a
          1. Boundary Markers, Platforms, House Lots, and Graves
          2. Oma'o Heiau
     Central Keokea Ahupua'a
          1. House Lot
          2. Keawe House Site
          3. 1871 Trail
               a) Remains
               b) Hawaiian Trail System
               c) Types of Trails in the Park
               d) Trails Around the Pu'uhonua
               e) Beach Trail System
               f) Trails Change to Accommodate Horse Travel
               g) Inland Trail Ascends Keanae'e Cliff
               h) Inland Trail Improved
               i) Stabilization Work on Alahaka Ramp, 1963
          4. Holua
          5. Keanae'e Cliff Burial Caves and Shelters
          6. Alahaka Heiau
          7. House Platform at Base of Alahaka Ramp
          8. Fisherman's Shrine
     South Keokea
          1. Outskirts of Ki'ilae Village
          2. Ki'ilae Village
               a) Research Accomplished and Types of Remains
               b) Anchorages
               c) Early History
               d) Later History
               e) Houses and Furnishings
               f) Water Supply
               g) Economy
               h) Livestock and Other Animals
               i) Food Preparation
               j) Society and Culture
               k) Decline of Village
               l) Individual Sites
                    (1) Kahikina House Lot
                    (2) Ahu House Lot
                    (3) Pipi House Lot
                    (4) Manunu House Lot
               m) Kenneth P. Emory's Fieldwork
               n) Edmund J. Ladd's Fieldwork
G. Significance of Resources and Establishment of a National Historical Park
H. Contributing and Non-Contributing Elements
I. Threats to Resources
     1. Sea Action
     2. Exotic Vegetation and Animals
     3. Visitor Recreational Activities
     4. Unprotected Related Resources
     5. Park Development
J. Management Recommendations
     1. Further Archeological Surveys
     2. Treatment of Resources
     3. Preservation of Resources Outside Park Boundary

GLOSSARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ENDNOTES

A Note on Spelling
Due to the inability of some Web browsers to display certain characters, the anglicized spelling of many Hawaiian words will be used in this on-line edition. We hope this does not detract from the contents of this document. You are encouraged to consult printed materials for proper spelling. The following illustrates the correct spelling of the three parks covered by this study: