MANZANAR Historic Resource Study/Special History Study

As soon as the Manzanar site was selected, the Western Defense Command hurriedly began development of plans and specifications for construction of the camp. [1] Bids for the general contract to build the camp were opened by the U.S. District Engineer's Office in Los Angeles on March 5, approximately one week after the site for Manzanar was selected. The following day, Griffith and Company of Los Angeles received the general contract for construction of the temporary buildings and structures that would form the core of the camp at Manzanar, including installation of plumbing equipment and fuel oil lines.

During subsequent weeks, other contracts were let by the Corps of Engineers for construction of basic facilities at Manzanar, including water and sewage disposal systems, electrical, telephone, fire, and police signal systems, and buildings and structures (military police, administration, hospital, warehouses, industrial, oil storage, observation or watch towers, and fencing). Each of these contracts was supervised by the U.S. District Engineer's Office in Los Angeles. Funding for the construction was provided from the President's Emergency Fund. [2]

While construction of the Manzanar facilities was underway, the War Relocation Authority and the War Department reached an agreement on May 18, 1942, for administrative transfer of the camp from the WCCA to the WRA effective June 1. The construction program originally conceived by the WCCA and the WRA for relocation or reception centers was based on the requirements of Sections 5 and 7 of the Memorandum of Agreement that had been negotiated by the WRA and the War Department on April 17, 1942. Section 5 of the agreement stated that construction "of initial facilities at Relocation Centers (Reception Centers)" would be "accomplished by the War Department." The initial construction would include "all facilities necessary to provide the minimum essentials of living, viz., shelter, hospital, mess, sanitary facilities, administration building, housing for relocation staff, post office, store houses, essential refrigeration equipment, and military police housing." War Department construction would not include "refinements such as schools, churches and other community planning adjuncts." Section 7 of the agreement provided that after taking over existing reception centers, such as Manzanar, the WRA would operate them and "be prepared to accept successive increments of evacuees as construction " was "completed and supplies and equipment" were delivered. [3]

Thus, while Manzanar came under WRA administration on June 1, construction of the basic facilities at the camp continued under the Corps of Engineers in order "to meet minimum living requirements." After the basic facilities were completed, the WRA undertook various construction and remodeling projects at Manzanar within its Construction and Improvement Program, primarily using evacuee labor to conduct the work "under a force account system." The WRA construction projects included new buildings and structures, additions to existing structures, utility extension, remodeling, and refrigeration improvements.

Some the initial land improvements at Manzanar, including land clearing and development and construction of irrigation and drainage facilities, streets, roads, and bridges, were carried out by contract under the supervision of the Corps of Engineers. Most of these improvements, however, would be conducted later by the WRA using evacuee labor.

On June 8, 1942, about one week after the WRA assumed administration of Manzanar, Lieutenant General DeWitt and Colonel L. R. Groves of the Office of the Chief of Engineers agreed on "Standards and Details — Construction of Japanese Evacuee Reception Centers." [4] The standards were issued to provide "uniformity of construction" and "to obviate the necessity of miscellaneous correspondence in connection with construction of Reception Centers in Relocation Areas." The standards were to be followed "in all future construction and to the extent possible in current construction of Japanese Evacuee Reception Centers." This document, along with its several supplements, outlined the basic general facilities to be provided by the Corps of Engineers. Although many of the basic facilities at Manzanar were completed or in process of construction by the time that the standards were approved, they influenced the completion of the basic construction at Manzanar under the Corps of Engineers. [5]

Virtually all construction under the Corps of Engineers was conducted by contract. In some cases, delays in the delivery of building materials slowed construction projects. Because the Engineers' services were needed elsewhere, arrangements were made whereby WRA forces assumed responsibility for construction when the materials were finally received. Short and hurried time schedules, employment of inexperienced workmen, inclement weather, and use of lower grade materials all made "for a low standard of construction, which, it soon developed, raised many problems in connection with operation and maintenance." [6]

The Final Report, Manzanar contained an "Engineering Section" which detailed the "story of the construction of the Manzanar War Relocation Center, its maintenance, and operation from March 1942, to November 1945." The section was prepared by Arthur M. Sandridge, senior engineer at Manzanar from June 16, 1942 to February 15, 1946, and Oliver E. Sisler, Superintendent, Maintenance and Construction, from October 12, 1942 to February 15, 1946. The report divided the construction story of the camp into three sections: (1) the "basic construction" of camp facilities, including buildings and structures, water, sewage disposal, electrical, telephone, and fire/police signal systems, and initial land improvements, constructed under the supervision of the Corps of Engineers of the Los Angeles District; (2) WRA construction, including major new construction, utility extension, remodeling, and refrigeration improvements, performed under a force account system primarily using evacuee labor; and (3) land improvements, including clearing and development, irrigation and drainage, streets and roads, bridges, and fencing. Except where otherwise noted, this chapter will be based largely on the information found in the "Engineering Section" of the Final Report, Manzanar. [7]

"BASIC CONSTRUCTION" UNDER THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS

Buildings and Structures

General Group. Griffith and Company of Los Angeles were the general contractors for all temporary buildings and structures, collectively referred to as the "general group," at Manzanar. This construction, which provided the housing and necessary support facilities for the evacuees, included the installation and furnishing of all plumbing equipment and fuel oil lines. Construction of the "general group" began in mid-March 1942, and Blocks 29-36, the last blocks to be completed, were opened to evacuees for occupancy during mid-June. The type size, use and number of buildings constructed as part of the "general group" were as follows:

The buildings were grouped in uniform block arrangement. Each block consisted of 15 barracks and a mess hall in "exact 40-feet-apart locations." In addition, each block had two latrines (men and women), a laundry room (20 feet x 40 feet), and an ironing room between the rows. The men's latrine had eight flush toilets, while the women's had twelve. Each latrine had a shower room (12 feet x 12 feet) with an average of seven shower nozzles, and each laundry room had 12 laundry tubs for clothes washing "by hand, scrub board method." [9]

The temporary buildings and structures in the "general group" were "regular Army Theater of Operations (T.O.) type of construction, supported on precast concrete blocks, 14 in. x 14 in. x 8 in." The blocks were "placed on 10-feet centers down the sides and through the center." Girders were constructed of "2 in. x 6 in. material, spiked together to form 2 in. x 6 in. for the outside and 6 in. x 6 in. for the center span, supported 2 in. x 6 in. floor joist spaced 2 feet on centers." The floors were "1 in. x 6 in. tongue and groove or 1 in. x 6 in. shiplap." The walls "were framed from 2 in. x 6 in. material spaced 8 feet on centers." A "2 in. x 4 in. nailing girt, spaced half the distance between the top and bottom plates, furnished center nailing for the sheeting that was applied vertically." The rafters were "of 2 in. x 4 in. material spaced 48 inches on centers with a double 1 in. x 6 in. ceiling joist or cord, and 2 in. x 6 in. knee bracing on every other set or rafters." The roof was sheeted "with 1-inch random width sheeting and covered with 45-pound roll roofing." The walls and gables "were covered with 15-pound building paper, held in place by 3/8 in. x 2 in. lath or batts." The "barrack-type buildings were equipped with sliding 4-light sash windows, size 36 in. x 40 in., and 12 sash on each side." The warehouse group had "the same type window but was reduced to six windows to each side with a 5 ft. x 7 ft. double door in each end." [10]

Military Police Group. Griffith and Company constructed 12 buildings that comprised the "military police group" located south of the Manzanar evacuee camp area. Construction of the "Military Post was typical of the general group in the Center" with several exceptions. Thus, construction of these buildings was sometimes referred to as "modified mobilization type." The exterior walls were covered with "1 in. x 10 in. drop siding," and the "interior walls and ceilings were lined with 1/2-inch sheet rock." All exterior walls were painted as "a protection against the weather." The four barracks buildings were designed to house 200 men. The officers' quarters, designed to house 12 officers, included seven bedrooms, one lounge, and a toilet, while the guard house included a gun room and a "cage." The motor repair building, or garage, was an open shed designed for 8 trucks and automobiles. The recreation building was designed for a capacity of 60 persons, while the mess hall was designed to feed 120 men at one time. The type, size in feet, and number of buildings in the "military police group" included:

Administration Group. Twelve buildings, constructed south of Block 1 by Griffith and Company, constituted the "administration group." The administration building (labeled in the chart below as "Administration buildings,") was an "L"-shaped building constructed by placing together two pre-existing 20-foot x 100-foot structures. The interior of the structure had interior offices separated by partitions. This building, completed in late July or early August 1942, was located near the main entrance to Manzanar and was the principal administrative building for the camp.

The buildings in the "administrative group" were constructed similar to those in the "military police group" with two exceptions. The reception building, built to accommodate visitors to the camp who wished to meet evacuees, and the service station were "of the same construction as those in the general group." The type, size in feet, use, and number of buildings in the "administration group" included:

Hospital Group, Including Children's Village. When the first evacuees arrived at Manzanar, it did not have a permanent hospital facility. A temporary facility was established on March 21, 1942, in Block I, Building 2. "Apartment 2" was used for the hospital facility, and Apartment 3 served as a temporary ward containing five beds. On April 13 the hospital was moved into a barracks building partitioned into units containing ten beds each, as well as an operating room, pharmacy, laboratory, x-ray room, sterilizing room, utility room, linen room, record room, and kitchen. Four more barracks were eventually acquired for additional patients. [13]

On July 22, 1942, the Manzanar hospital moved into a permanent 250-bed facility (having 563,087 square feet of floor space) west of Blocks 29 and 34, and on September 12 a formal dedication ceremony was held. The "hospital group" included 19 buildings that were constructed by Griffith and Company. The administrative building was divided into offices, an out-patient clinic, an ear, nose, and throat clinic, a pharmacy, sterilizing room, laboratory, and facilities for x-ray, minor surgery, and surgery. [14]

The hospital buildings were of "the same type of construction as the general group with the exception of the heating plant." This building was "wood frame construction with the walls and roof covered with galvanized corrugated iron." All other buildings within the "hospital group" were "spaced a minimum of 50 feet apart and connected with covered walks" and were "of wood-frame construction with wood floors covered with linoleum." The covered walks were "8 ft. 3 in. from the finished floor to the top of the plate line, with an overall width of 6 ft. 7 in."

The walks connecting the hospital administration building with the wards, mess hall, and morgue "were closed on the sides with double-hung windows spaced, approximately, 9 feet on centers." The "walks connecting the nurses' and doctors' quarters to the ward walks were open on the sides with a hand rail extending the full length of each walk."

The heating system consisted of three "Kewanee 60-H.P. oil-fired steam boilers, equipped with Johnston automatic oil burners, and all necessary piping valves, pumps, and radiators for complete and adequate heating of ail buildings, and for washing and sterilizing in all wards, operating rooms, offices, clinics, and laundry." The Children's Village (orphanage) buildings were in a separate building group, and each building was heated "by oil-burning space heaters." The hot water system for the hospital group consisted of "one 60-gallon H.C. Little automatic hot-water heater for each building." [15]

The Children's Village was an orphanage for evacuated Japanese children located in the firebreak south of Block 29. One of the buildings was a girls dormitory, one a boys dormitory, and a third contained a mess hall, administrative offices, and staff housing. As the three buildings comprising the Children's Village were nearing completion in mid-June 1942, it was reported that these structures were "larger than the standard barracks, having porches at each end." Compared with the evacuee barracks, the village buildings were "superior in construction, having double flooring, double walls, ceiling, double partitions, inside showers and toilet facilities." [16]

The type, size in feet, capacity, and number of buildings in the "hospital group" included:

Miscellaneous Group.

Refrigerator Warehouses — Two refrigerator warehouses were constructed under a contract sublet by Griffith and Company to Hugh Robinson and Sons of Los Angeles in the warehouse area south of Block 2 and west of the "administrative group" area in July 1942. The two structures "had an overall size of 20 ft. x 100 ft. with approximately 7 ft. 6 in. ceilings." The refrigerator rooms "proper were 20 ft. x 80 ft. with 7-ft. ceilings, and were insulated with 6 inches of Palco-wool on the sides, ceilings, and floors." The doors at each end were "3 ft. 6 in. x 6 ft. 6 in." and had "4 inches of Palco-wool for insulation." The interiors of the rooms were sealed with "1-inch tongue-and-groove ceilings." The exterior finish was "1-inch sheeting covered with 15-pound building paper and 3/8 in. x 2 in. batts to hold the paper in place." A 20-foot x 40-foot annex (sometimes referred to as the "reefer house"), connecting the two structures, "was used for meat cutting and the sorting of fruits and vegetables."

Each warehouse had "four evaporator condensers, recold humid-air type." Operating on defrost they "maintained a 34-degree to 36-degree temperature in the meat refrigerator, and 38- to 40-degree temperature in the vegetable refrigerator."

The compressor and condensing units were housed "in a 10 ft. x 10 ft. room, an integral part of the refrigerator rooms." The compressors were "Brunner, model E, Type C, driven by a 7 1/2-H.P. 220-volt, 3-phase Fairbanks Morse electric motors." Drayer Hanson condensing units, "model 11/4-inch, L-3, 1/4-H.P.," were used on both units. [18]

Net Garnishing or Camouflage Buildings — Five buildings were constructed at Manzanar by the Q.R.S. Neon Corporation of Los Angeles for "garnishing or camouflaging" nets for Army use. Three of these buildings were of uniform size and construction: 300 feet x 24 feet with an overall height of 18 feet from the finished floor to the plate line. Two buildings had additions that served as offices: 12 feet x 20 feet with shed roofs.

The camouflage buildings exhibited "heavy construction" techniques. Posts "measuring 6 in. x 12 in. on 10-foot centers supported a double set of 2 in. x 6 in. rafters bolted to each side of the post." The rafters were "tied together with a 2 in. x 6 in. cord and 2 in. x 6 in. knee braces, extending from approximately 2 feet below the plate line forming a modified form of scissors truss." Intermediate "2 in. x 6 in. rafters with 2 in. x 6 in. cords and spaced 2 feet on centers completed the roof framing." The roof "was covered with 1-inch random-width sheeting laid diagonally and covered with 90-pound roll roofing."

The walls were constructed with "two horizontal 2 in. x 6 in. nailing girts and 2 in. x 6 in. verticals spaced on 2-foot centers." The sides were "covered with 10-inch drop siding from the floor to 10 feet above." The ends were "covered from the floor to the ridge." The walls were braced "with 2 in. x 6 in. bracing." Cement floors were constructed throughout the buildings.

Another building in this group, typical in construction detail except for size, was "24 ft. x 100 ft. with an adjoining open shed for storage 60 ft. x 100 ft." This shed had "8-foot walls open on one side, and covered on one side and one end with "10-inch drop siding." "Two-by-six rafters, spaced on 4-foot centers were sheeted with 1-inch random-width sheeting and roofed with roll roofing." A wood floor "of 1 in. x 6 in. sheeting" was constructed in this addition.

A fifth structure in the camouflage buildings group was a cutting shed, "150 ft. x 24 ft. 6 in." All the materials necessary for the fabrication of the nets were processed in this building. It was constructed of "2 in. x 4 in. floor joists with 1 in. x 6 in. shiplap flooring, 2 in. x 6 in. studding 8 feet long, spaced on 4-foot centers, 2 in. x 6 in. knee braces with every forth [sic] set of rafters." The rafters were "2 in. x 6 in., spaced 3 ft. 4 in. on centers." One side was left open while the other side was sheeted from the floor to the plate line with 10-inch drop siding." Both ends "were sheeted from the floor to the ridge with the same material." [19]

Oil-Storage Tanks and Platforms — Griffith and Company constructed 37 oil-storage tanks and platforms — one in each block of evacuee barracks and one at the military post. The structures were built for the storage of fuel oil for distribution through pipe lines to the hot-water heaters (and later the ranges) in the mess halls, to the hot-water boilers in the boiler rooms attached to the latrines, and to the boiler in the rooms attached to the laundries. Fuel oil was also stored in the tanks for daily distribution to the evacuees for use in the spare heaters in their barracks.

The storage-tank platforms rested on "12-in. x 12-in. concrete piers projecting approximately 12 inches above the natural grade, and of sufficient depth to insure a solid footing." Four posts, "6 in. x 6 in. x 5 ft., spaced 7 feet on centers with a 6 in. x 6 in. cap projecting 2 feet beyond the posts, formed the bents for a deck or floor of 3 in. x 10 in. x 12 ft. Douglas fir." A gable roof, covered with roll roofing, covered the platforms. The roofs were "open on the gables" and were "supported by 2 posts, 4 in. x 4 in. x 5 ft., at each corner with 3 intermediate studs of 2 in. x 4 in. material." Plates, "2 in. x 4 in.," and ties were used for support and for bracing the roof. The "under-structure" was braced "horizontally and diagonally with 2 in. x 6 in. material."

Twelve of the cylindrical galvanized iron tanks had a capacity of 2,450 gallons, while 25 of the tanks had a capacity of 1,250 gallons. Two 6,000-gallon reinforced concrete tanks at the hospital boiler house were used for fuel storage for the hospital. These tanks were buried below grade. [20]

Observation or Watch Towers — According to the Final Report, Manzanar eight wood observation or watch towers were constructed on the perimeter of the camp by Charles I. Summer, a contractor in Lone Pine. The eight watch towers, however, were not all built at the same time. After War Relocation Authority officials visited Manzanar on May 7, 1942, as negotiations were underway for transfer of the center from the WCCA to the WRA, John H. Provinse, chief of the WRA Community Services Section, reported to Milton Eisenhower that it was proposed

to install during the coming week 8 observation and guard towers on the project in order to facilitate the military patrol work. Inasmuch as our direction of effort should be away from surveillance of these people as enemies or as anything else than participant American citizens, it seems extremely undesirable to establish such guard towers. Mr. Fryer [who accompanied Provinse] said that he would do everything he could to prevent their erection. In case they are erected while the project is still in Army control, they could be removed after the War Relocation Authority takes over, or they could be allowed to remain without being used. The military contingent at the present time consists of one company of 99 men and patrols are established around the external confines of the project. . . . [21]

Despite WRA opposition, however, four watchtowers were constructed on the perimeter of the center by late July 1942. On July 31, Manzanar Director Roy Nash observed:

.... Four towers with flood lights overlook the Center; the Relocation area is the whole 6,000 tract of which the Center is but a part.

.... There is a company of Military Police stationed just south of the Center, whose function it is to maintain a patrol about the entire area during the day; and to man the towers and patrol the Center at night. A telephone is being installed in each tower so that if a fire breaks out, it can immediately be reported. The whole camp is under the eyes of those sentries. . . . [22]

During August 31 to September 2, 1942, P. J. Webster, Chief, Lands Division, for the WRA in San Francisco conducted an investigation of Manzanar, focusing on claims of lax security at the relocation center. Among other observations he reported to his superiors on September 7:

I asked Captain Archer and Lt. Buckner of the Military Police whether they thought it was possible for the Japanese to leave the Relocation Center and fish or swim. They said they had heard that the Japanese were doing some fishing and swimming west of the Center, but if this were true they were doing it at a very great risk to their personal safety. They said that there were about 120 soldiers in their unit, and that this made it difficult to post an adequate guard on the west side, twenty-four hours a day. At the present time there are 11 guard posts being maintained on a 24 hour basis. . . . I inspected the guarding service along the west line, which is approximately 7/10 of a mile in length. This area is patrolled, but so lightly that a person could go over the line without being noticed. This is particularly true because there is a trash-burning dump a little distance from the west boundary of the Center. In connection with this dump, a long trench has been excavated and the dirt therefrom forms a long barrier about five feet high. If a person gets over this barrier he can proceed a considerable distance to the west, out of sight of anyone patrolling the west boundary. Furthermore, at night there are no search lights along the west boundary. . . .

Another statement which Lt. Buckner made emphasizes the attitude of the Military Police and also that they take the patrol service with the utmost seriousness. He said that he, personally, would not be willing to attempt to cross through the beam of light thrown by one of the four search lights now installed for a thousand dollars, even though he had on his soldier's uniform. . . .

Realizing that the patrolling of the west side was not satisfactory, Captain Archer, over a considerable period of time, has been trying to get additional watch towers and search lights. His request has just been approved and plans are now under way for the installation of four more towers, which will make a total of eight. When this installation is completed there will be a tower at each corner, and at the middle point of each of the four sides of the Center. Twelve powerful search lights will be installed which will throw a broad beam of bright light around the entire Center. When this is completed it appears very unlikely that any Japanese will leave the Center without permits during hours of darkness. [23]

On August 11, 1942, Lieutenant Colonel Claude B. Washburn of the WCCA inspected the security arrangements at Manzanar. He reported that three guard towers were "needed in back" [west side] of the center. "Guards in [the] rear walk[ed] through brush" and were "unable to see much of their area." "One man alone" had "no protection against attack." [24]

The last four observation or watch towers at Manzanar were completed by early November 1942. An inspection report by WRA and military officials on November 5-7, 1942, noted that there "Should be 8 [watch or observation towers] at this center." The eight towers in use were "weatherproofed." Searchlights on four of the towers (Nos. 1-4) were wired, while those on four (Nos. 5-8) were not wired. [25]

The towers, as completed by Summer, were supported on "24 in. x 24 in. concrete piers embedded in the ground a sufficient depth to insure a sound footing" to "take care of the weight and wind load." Each pier had anchor straps to secure the "6 in. x 6 in. corner posts." The towers were "8 feet square at the base and 6 feet square at the top." The corner posts, "6 in. x 6 in., were of Douglas fir." Each tower had two platforms. The lower one (30 feet high), "6 ft. x 10 ft., was enclosed with 2 in. x 6 in. joists and 2 in. x 6 in. flooring with 1 in. x 8 in. shiplap and two sash windows, 2 ft. x 3 ft 6 in., were installed on each side. " The upper platform (40 feet high) was "8 ft. x 12 ft. with 2 in. x 8 in. girders, 2 in. x 6 in. joists, and 2 in. x 6 in. flooring." A railing of "2 in. x 4 in., with 2 in. x 4 in., posts encircled this platform." The towers were "securely braced, both horizontally and diagonally." A "2,000 candle power searchlight was mounted on each tower." [26]

Fencing — Installation of the fencing at Manzanar is not well documented, and many of the documents appear to provide conflicting information. On July 31, 1942, Roy Nash, director of Manzanar, stated:

The Relocation Center is that district, approximately a mile square, in which all the buildings of Manzanar are located. It is fenced with an ordinary three-strand barbed-wire fence across the front [east side along the highway] and far enough back [west] from the road on either side to control all automobile traffic. Four towers with flood lights overlook the Center; the Relocation area is the whole 6,000 tract of which the Center is but a part. [27]

The aforementioned inspection of Manzanar conducted on November 5-7, 1942, by WRA and military personnel contained minimal information on fencing. The inspection report stated:

Under contract - 1 side and 1 end completed - balance in 1 week. Net garnish area - completly (sic) enclosed - including timekeeper's shelter and entrance gates. [28]

In connection with the inspection, the Corps of Engineers prepared a "Transfer of New Construction" form dated November 5, 1942. This document stated that a five-foot-high, five-strand, two-point barbed wire fence, mounted on wood posts, which would eventually run for 19, 388 linear feet around the camp, was only half complete. [29]

The Final Report, Manzanar notes that the C. J. Paradise Company, a contracting in Los Angeles, removed "5,000 lineal feet of old fencing" from the Manzanar site and installed "18,871 lineal feet of new fence of 5-strand barbed wire around the boundaries of the Center area [evacuee residential area]." This fence "was contracted for through the U.S. Engineers." [30]

The aforementioned "Fixed Asset Inventory" listed three fencing categories at Manzanar that "were acquired" from the WCCA "at the time that the War Relocation Authority took possession of the lands from the War Department." [31] The categories, as listed in the aforementioned "Appraisal Report," were:

1. Boundary Fence, camp area boundary lines, 5 strands of double barbed wire, 19,380 feet

2. Fence, motor pool area, 5 strands of double barbed wire, 1,020 feet

3. Fence, camouflage building area, 5 strands of double barbed wire, 715 feet [32]

The aforementioned "Explanatory Notes" attached to the "Appraisal Report" provide additional information on the fencing at Manzanar. The "Notes" state that the "boundary fence of the main portion of the camp is built of 5 strands of medium heavy barbed wire on sawed fir posts." The fences around the motor pool and camouflage building areas had "a good many rough posts made of locust wood which, although smaller than the sawed posts, is more durable." Some of these latter fences had "7 or 8 wires - a few only 4 wires," but the "average of each enclosure" was selected "as the best method of appraising the value." The number of posts for each category of fencing was: boundary fence, 1,174 posts; motor pool area, 61 posts; camouflage building area, 44 posts. [33]

Water and Sewage Disposal Systems

Water. Initially, the water supply for the Manzanar camp was provided on a temporary basis by a water tank located west of Block 24. The tank, which had a capacity of 98,000 gallons, was emptied an average of 15 times each 24-hour period. Because of the inadequacies of this system, construction was begun on a new concrete basin reservoir located northwest of the camp along Shepherd Creek on May 22, 1942. [34]

The permanent water supply system for Manzanar, which was completed in July 1942, was constructed under contract by Vinson and Pringle, a construction firm in Los Angeles. The system consisted of a concrete dam and settling basin on Shepherd Creek, "approximately 3,250 feet north and west of the Center in T 14 S, R 35 E, Sec. 9." Water was carried through an open cement-lined flume from the settling basin to the storage reservoir. Water passed through a chlorinator on the way to the reservoir. The reservoir, "120 ft. x 180 ft. with a capacity of 540,000 gallons," was constructed "with 45-degree earth embankments reinforced with wire mesh and lined with concrete." Two "14-inch calico gates regulated the water within the reservoir." One gate "emptied into a control spillway and the other emptied into a 14-inch supply line."

Water was carried from the reservoir through "4,650 feet of 14-inch welded steel pipe into a 90,000 gallon steel storage tank." An "8 ft. x 22 ft. chlorinator house of temporary frame construction" was built adjacent to the storage tank for the housing of a "H. T. H. chlorinator machine, Clayton valve, sand traps, meters, and a 6-inch by-pass line." The water line from the reservoir to the storage tank was laid "in the open ditch that carried the temporary water supply into the camp area." This line was insulated by "covering it with an earth fill." Drainage facilities were provided by the "installation of hexagonal wooden culverts placed below the level of the pipe line."

The pipe line and the steel storage tank were constructed by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. The pipe line was insulated and the wooden drainage culverts were installed by the C. J. Paradise Company of Los Angeles.

A 12-inch distribution main of welded steel pipe, equipped with 12-inch Sparling meter having a capacity of 2,000 gallons of water per minute, carried water from the storage tank to branch mains throughout the center. The water distribution main system consisted of 5,170 feet of 12-inch, 6,340 feet of 10-inch, 8,822 feet of 8-inch, 29,745 feet of 6-inch cast-iron pipe and 706 feet of galvanized steel pipe. All service lines were "of galvanized iron pipe ranging in size from 3/4-inch to 2 1/2 inches," A total of "40,266 lineal feet of pipe" was used for the system.

An emergency standby system was installed to supplement the water supply "during freezing weather and in the event of a bad fire, which would necessitate the use of more than the normal amount of water supplied by Shepherd Creek." The standby system was installed at well 75 and consisted "of one 10,000-gallon redwood storage tank, and two 4-inch 50 horse power motor driven Fairbanks Morse booster pumps." Water was pumped through a master meter into the storage tank "by the City of Los Angeles pump with a 75 horse power electric motor." The water was pumped from the tank into the mains by the Fairbanks Morse booster pumps. To facilitate the control of water within the center, "34 6-inch, 20 8-inch, 15 10-inch and 8 12-inch gate valves" were installed throughout the water system.

At the time of its completion, the water system provided a daily supply of 1,500,000 gallons of water from Shepherd Creek to the camp. The remainder of the creek's flow went to the Owens River.

Fire protection was provided by the installation of 84 fire hydrants in the center. Additional protection was afforded the hospital by installation of an automatic sprinkler system, consisting of 522 sprinkler heads, placed in seven ward buildings, the hospital mess, and the covered walks. A 3-inch pipe was used in the covered walks, while a 1-inch pipe was used in the wards and mess hall. [35]

Sewage Disposal. The sewage disposal system at Manzanar, consisting of a collection and outfall system and a sewage treatment plant, was constructed by Vinson and Pringle of Los Angeles. Considered to be one of the most modern sewer systems of its time in California, the system cost some $150,000 to construct. [36]

The sewage treatment plant was located approximately 1,000 feet east of the evacuee residential area in T 14 S, R 35 E, SW 1/4 of Sec. 12. Construction of the system was commenced in April 1942, but it was not completed until mid-summer. During the construction period, a temporary septic tank "100 ft. x 20 ft. x 6 ft.," was used, with excess waste being "allowed to run over the desert waste land." All sewage entering this tank was treated with chlorine. [37]

The collection system within the center "consisted of 2,500 lineal feet of 18-inch, 1,100 lineal feet of 15-inch, and 26,502 lineal feet of 8-inch vitrified clay pipe." A siphon was constructed to carry the outfall line under the Los Angeles Aqueduct. This siphon consisted of two 12-inch cast-iron pipes encased in concrete.

After leaving the outfall sewage line, the raw sewage entered the treatment plant which was located on one acre of land and had a designed capacity of 1,250,000 gallons per day. The plant consisted of seven units: (1) grit chamber; (2) scum and distribution box; (3) clarifier; (4) control house; (5) digester; (6) chlorine contact tank; and (7) sludge beds. Each unit with the exception of the control house and sludge beds was constructed with concrete. At the plant liquid and solid wastes were separated and treated. Any gas extracted went into boilers to be used for heating, while solid wastes passed through a chlorinator and into sludge pits where evaporation converted them into a substance used for fertilizer. [38]

At the treatment plant sewage first passed through the grit chamber which was equipped with bar screens. Then it entered the parshall flume where the metering and extension of the chlorination system occurred. The sewage left this unit to enter the distribution box, consisting of two calico gates.

The clarifier unit was a tank constructed of concrete, 60 feet in diameter and 9 feet in depth. The tank, with a rate of flow that varied from 500 to 1,750 gallons per minute, was equipped with a mechanism to process the sewage.

The control house, a "32 ft. x 58 ft. frame building with concrete floors, rustic siding and roll roofing," contained an office, laboratory metering gauges, and chlorinator control equipment. Manual and automatic control chlorinators were used, each having a maximum capacity of 200 pounds of chlorine per unit for each 24 hours. Each tank was equipped with a meter to register the flow of chlorine within its working range.

The sludge and scum pumps were housed in a concrete pit, "16 ft. x 14 ft. x 5 ft., with a frame roof covered with roll roofing to protect them from the weather."

The sludge digester was the "2-stage type, 40 feet in diameter with 22 feet 6 inches overall water depth." The water depth "in the upper compartment was 12 feet 3 inches and the lower compartment was 10 feet." The digester was arranged "with a horizontal concrete tray separating the lower and upper compartments which were operated in series." Intensive mixing was provided "in the upper compartment followed by quiescent settling in the lower compartment." The two compartments were connected by exterior piping.

The chlorine contact tank was made of reinforced concrete with reinforced concrete baffle walls. The dimensions of the tank were "8 ft. x 16 ft. 6 in. x 38 ft.," and it was "equipped with three standard manhole frames and covers." A "6-inch cast-iron pipe to the scum pump line removed any collection of material in the bottom of the tank." An l8-inch cast-iron influent pipe "served the contact tank from the clarifier." The chlorinated sewage was removed to the drainage area through an 18-inch vitrified clay pipe.

Four sludge drying beds, 50 feet x 100 feet, were constructed. The ground surface was leveled, and dikes or berms 31/2 feet high were constructed. Six inches of sand was placed in each bed. The sludge was carried to these beds through a 6-inch cast-iron pipeline. [39]

Electrical, Telephone, and Fire/Police Signal Systems

Electrical System. Electrical power was supplied to Manzanar by the Los Angeles City Bureau of Power and Light from its power station on nearby Cottonwood Creek. The system consisted of 58,400 lineal feet of overhead distribution lines that provided service to 730 buildings. A master switch controlled the entire camp, and a master meter registered all electricity used within the camp. In addition to lighting the buildings, 190 alley and street lights were served. To service the camp, 79 transformers were installed, ranging in size from 2 kVA to 37 1/2 kVA. [40]

Telephone System. The telephone system was installed by the Interstate Telegraph Company. Telephone wires were strung across arms that were installed on existing power poles. The system included a 40-line switch. To complete the project seven miles of "3-circuit #9 wire" and seven miles of "2-circuit #12 N.B.S. copper wire" were installed. [41]

Fire/Police Signal System. A signal system adequate to meet the needs of both the "Fire Protection and Internal Security" sections was installed by the Interstate Telegraph Company under contract with the U.S. Signal Corps. Outside installation included cross arms and "approximately 1,500 feet of lead covered cable and 20,700 lineal feet of 2-wire telephone line." "Inside plant and station equipment" included installation of an additional strip of ten jacks in the existing switchboard and "21 telephone instruments, drops, protectors, and appurtenances." [42]

Land Improvements

Initial land improvements at Manzanar were carried out under contract by the C. J. Paradise Company of Los Angeles. Streets, alleys, and building sites were graded and given a light coat of penetrating oil to permit passage of motor vehicle traffic and enable construction operations to proceed. "No primary grading of the streets or drainage structures," however, was conducted by this firm. [43]

STATUS OF CONSTRUCTION AT MANZANAR WHEN THE WAR RELOCATION AUTHORITY ASSUMED ADMINISTRATION ON JUNE 1, 1942

When the War Relocation Authority assumed administration of Manzanar on June 1, 1942, George H. Dean, a Senior Information Specialist in the WRA's office in San Francisco, undertook assessment of conditions at the relocation center. After his inspection, he issued a lengthy report describing both the administrative operation and the physical conditions of the camp which then housed 9,671 evacuees. Among his observations on the physical conditions and status of construction at Manzanar were the following:

The War Relocation Authority, in acquiring the Manzanar project, took over a plant consisting of 724 wooden barracks buildings, a hospital group and a children's center. . . .

In many instances, especially on those days when heavy arrivals of evacuees occurred, assignments to the barracks have been made perhaps inevitably in an indiscriminate manner, resulting in serious overcrowding in some of the buildings. Many cases existed of eight and ten persons of various ages being housed in a single apartment, sometimes two and three separate family units. This has resulted in a health and sanitation problem, and in some scattered instances in an unsatisfactory moral situation.

Floors and walls of the barracks reflected considerable deterioration, large cracks developing from the drying out of the lumber under the heat and low humidity in this area. They were, and are, rough and difficult to keep clean, and on some days as high as nine complaints have been received at the engineering office on floors giving way. Linoleum and felt padding had been ordered for installation in all barracks and mess halls, and the installation in the messes had been completed on June 1. The remainder of the work of laying the linoleum in the barracks will be performed by Japanese labor, but this had to be postponed as white union labor would not work on the project simultaneously with Japanese labor.

Barracks were turned over to the evacuees without steps and it has been necessary to construct 2,232 sets of steps on which work was about 75 percent complete when lumber supplies were shut off. Considerable difficulty has developed from plumbing valves sticking. Because of the peculiar type of valve used, it is hard to replace them. On the whole, however, the amount of plumbing disorder is not abnormal for a community of this size.

Electrical installations and overloading of the lines because of the large usage of electrical devices, such as irons, heaters and radios, by the evacuees have created a serious fire hazard in all of the barracks. Wiring is openly strung in the buildings. The evacuees have more than five and a half miles of electrical cord connected to electrical accessories. Most of this cord is in good condition at the present time, but with continual overloading of the wires it will deteriorate abnormally quickly. Numerous daily blowing of fuses is evidence of the overloading. . . .

The water supply is not entirely completed. . . . Tests conducted in May revealed a rather high degree of pollution and a trace of E. coli. There has been a comparatively high incidence of dysentery within the project and studies were being made to determine whether this was attributable to pollution of the water supply. . . .

Dishwashing equipment was inadequate and unsanitary. Additional equipment had been ordered prior to June 1 and is in the process of installation. Dr. Harrison, chief of the 5th Public Health District, described the dishwashing situation as the most serious health menace in the project. The supply of hot water, both in the kitchens and wash rooms is adequate under normal usage but is insufficient to meet peak loads.

Sewage from the project is siphoned under the aqueduct east of the camp and spread out over the open land. A disposal plant was commenced by the army prior to June 1 and is under construction. Sectional drainage problems exist and water collects under some of the barracks. Garbage collection generally is handled satisfactorily. It is dumped in an open pit east of the project, burned and buried. No attempt is made to use the wet garbage but plans were being drawn for hog and chicken projects to utilize this waste. . . .

On June 1, no provision had been made for buildings to house the carpenter shop, repair shops, plumbing shops, equipment sheds, or a lumber yard. The shops are being temporarily housed in warehouse buildings. . . . No landscaping work had been done prior to June 1, except for a limited, voluntary improvised project in front of the guayule experiment and plant propagation stations. The absence of landscaping was due to the lack of both equipment and stock. In this respect, the project was substantially as it was when the land first was cleared of the native sagebrush growth. Neither had steps been taken looking towards dust palliation. The project possessed no sprinkler wagon and a limited amount of hosing was done by hand. With the destruction of the natural ground cover, the dust problem is acute on windy days. . . .

The men and women's lavatories were without partitions. . . .

In operation on June 1, were twenty mess halls, each accommodating approximately 500 persons. Sixteen additional block mess halls, completed insofar as physical construction is concerned, were inoperative because of the lack of plumbing facilities and mess equipment. The hospital, personnel and high school messes had not been built. . . .

The hospital facilities at Manzanar on June 1, consisted of a 10-bed improvised hospital in one of the barracks buildings, an isolation ward, an out-patients' clinic and a children's ward. . . .

. . . . Manzanar has a single 500-gallon fire engine borrowed from the United States Forest Service. The fire department crew consisted of a fire chief, three Caucasion [sic] captains and thirty Japanese firemen split among three eight hour shifts. The camp is without a fire alarm system or an inter-barracks telephone system over which the ocurrence [sic] of fires might be reported. There is not a telephone to the hospital. During the night, the camp is patrolled by one Japanese for each area of three blocks. For the patrolman to report a fire it would be necessary for him to go by foot to the fire station. Each squad is drilled one hour daily in the use of the fire equipment and extinguishers.

Foamite extinguishers have been installed in the hospital units, each boiler room, laundry building and mess kitchen. Buckets of sand have been placed in the boiler room in each block; all available water barrels with buckets have been placed at strategic locations throughout the center, and residents have been instructed in the use of the improvised equipment until the fire department arrives. Locks have been ordered for fuse boxes to prevent solid fusing with pennies or other devices. Open fires are not allowed without a permit and no permits are issued on windy days after 2 p. m. [44]

CONSTRUCTION AT MANZANAR UNDER THE WAR RELOCATION AUTHORITY

After the initial 'basic construction' at Manzanar was completed by contractors working under the supervision of the Corps of Engineers, additional new construction, remodeling of existing structures, utility system extension, and refrigeration and land improvements became the responsibility of the relocation center's Engineering Section. Arthur M. Sandridge, who was appointed by the War Relocation Authority as Senior Engineer at Manzanar in June 1942, provided leadership for this section until February 1946. Sandridge was responsible to the Assistant Project Director in charge of Operations when that position was filled. Otherwise, he was responsible directly to the Project Director. The responsibilities of Sandridge included general supervision of the engineering program at Manzanar "so that the efficiency and standards of the section could be maintained for the operation, maintenance, and construction of the Relocation Center." He was also responsible for conducting a training program for supervisors and other appointed WRA personnel in the Engineering Section designed to acquaint them with the policies and methods for training Caucasian and evacuee employees in their respective units. Prior to leaving Manzanar in February 1946, Sandridge observed:

Very few of the Japanese in this Center were carpenters, plumbers, electricians, or trained for the other building trades. This necessitated the small appointed personnel, 8 to 14 people, to train and supervise the evacuees in construction and maintenance for this Center. To obtain a comparison of what this involved, imagine a city of 10,000 people without contractors or repair shops, where the city Engineer's office staff was responsible for training employees, operating the water and sewage plant system, electric distribution, steam plant for the hospital, all hot water boilers, distributing oil for cooking and heating, and doing all the repair work for the entire plant or city, and at the same time to construct houses complete for a staff of approximately 190 employees and their families, a chicken farm for 10,000 chickens, a hog farm for 500 hogs, to construct streets and roads, and an irrigation system for 350 acres of agricultural land developed for growing vegetables for the resident's food supply.

The problems of organizing and training crews for this work was more difficult, due to the fact the evacuees were only paid $16 to $19 per month but were furnished quarters and food whether they worked or not.

This program was carried out only by cooperation of the appointed personnel and the evacuees. A great many evacuees worked because of personal loyalty and respect for their supervisors.

Many of the evacuees learned trades such as, surveying, drafting, carpentering, plumbing, painting, refrigerator repairing, boiler and pump operating and to become electricians. . . . The maintenance problem was difficult for several reasons: first, because the temporary buildings deteriorated very fast and required constant repairs; second, because the original plans and construction, especially the utilities, were not planned for easy operation and maintenance. The electrical system had only one main switch which necessitated shutting off the electricity for the entire Center when any repairs were to be made. . . .

The water mains had valves for each six blocks which made it difficult to repair broken mains. . . .

Since the Center was laid out on a hillside with the hospital and blocks 6, 12, 18, and 24 at a higher elevation without any check valves in the water mains, consequently, they had a maximum water pressure of 26 pounds which would decrease to 16 pounds or below when the metal storage tank was low. This caused back siphon, making it necessary to install siphon breakers in the hospital and endangered the fire protection sprinkler system which was designed for 50 pounds pressure. This factor also made it necessary to maintain constant close supervision over the operation of the high pressure steam boilers. The lower part of the Center had an average pressure of 65 pounds which was adequate. [45]

New Construction

Staff Housing. In January 1943, Manzanar had nine family and 16 single apartments housing 29 WRA employees, one U.S. Post Office employee, and 22 dependents. Thirty-six WRA employees and 42 dependents lived in Independence, five miles north of the camp, Lone Pine, 12 miles south of the camp, and Cartago, 25 miles south of the camp. Seventy-seven employees and nearly 50 dependents were living in what Project Director Merritt described as "evacuee barracks so unsatisfactory that many employees have quit due to housing conditions." [46] Accordingly, the WRA determined in June 1942 to build wood frame housing for up to 250 staff members based on plans provided by the Farm Security Administration, including a combination of apartments for families and dormitories for single or married staff without children. [47]

Between January 15, 1943, and March 31, 1944, the WRA erected 19 buildings, having a combined area of 32,000 square feet, to house the center's appointed personnel at a cost of $110,633. The staff housing units, although temporary structures, were more substantial and commodious than the evacuee barracks, including among other things refrigerators, electric ranges, and space heaters.

Of the 19 buildings "14 were of the 4-family unit type, 3 were dormitories , and 1 was a central laundry." One of the "4-family unit type" structures served as a residence for the project director. Eighteen of the structures were constructed south and adjacent to the "administrative group." One four-family unit was built near the hospital group" for use by the center's Chief Medical Officer and appointive nurses.

The four-family unit staff buildings were divided into two two-bedroom and two one-bedroom apartments. Each apartment had a kitchen, living room, and bath. These staff buildings were "20 ft. x 94 ft., supported on three rows of concrete piers spaced 10 feet on centers the full length of the building." Girders "of 6 in. x "10 in. Douglas fir, built up from 2 in. x 10 in. timbers, supported 2 in. x 6 in. floor joists spaced 24 inches on centers." All walls and partitions "were framed from 2 in. x 4 in. Douglas fir excepting the dividing partitions between the apartments." The partitions were constructed with "2 in. x 8 in. plates, top and bottom, with staggered 2 in. x 4 in. studding spaced 24 inches on centers." The double partitions, as well as all water pipes for the adjoining baths and kitchens, were "sound-deadened with Kimsul insulating felt."

The rafters were "2 in. x 4 in. spaced 48 inches on centers with a 1 in. x 6 in. placed flat and midway between each set of rafters." The "1 in. x 6 in. redwood sheeting was securely nailed to the rafters and to the 1 in. x 6 in. which acted as a stiffener for the roof." Roofing was "the split-sheet type, each sheet overlapping the preceding sheet by more than half the width of the roll giving a double thickness to the whole roof."

The building exteriors were covered "with 1 in. x 6 in. V shiplap." A "1 in. x 3 in. sloping water table was placed around the building[s] 4 inches below the finished floor line, and the space below this point was boxed in with 1 in. x 6 in. redwood sheeting, forming a tight base to keep out cold, trash, animals, and the like."

All floors were "single thickness 1 in. x 4 in. tongue-and-groove Douglas fir." The "interiors of these buildings were lined with 3/8-inch plaster board," and "awning-type windows" were "used throughout." Cabinets were installed in each kitchen.

The three dormitories were "the same in type," as the four-family unit staff buildings. Each dormitory was "24 ft. x "140 ft. in size," and each building contained "10 double- and 3 single-bedrooms, 2 shower rooms, 2 toilets, "1 bathroom, 1 linen room, and 1 furnace room." The latter was used as a utility room and was equipped "with 2 double-compartment cement wash trays and a hot-water boiler."

The staff housing building at the hospital for the nurses and the Chief Medical Officer was "of the same type of construction, but was built 10 feet longer, 20 ft. by 104 ft." It contained "a 1-family apartment consisting of a kitchen, living-room, bath, and two bedrooms." The nurses' portion of the stricture was divided into "3 double- and 6 single-bedrooms, 2 bathrooms, 1 central living room, and a small kitchen."

The laundry building for the staff housing units was 16 feet x 20 feet and was equipped with tubs and a hot water heater.

Heating for the staff housing buildings, except for the dormitories, was supplied by "H.C. Little oil-burning space heaters." Hot water for the kitchens and bathrooms in the apartments was supplied by a "60-gallon H.C. Little automatic oil-burning hot-water heater, located in a 6 ft. x 8 ft. outside boiler room, built as an integral part of each building." Fuel for the space heaters and hot-water boilers was piped "from a 100-gallon tank centrally located outside and adjacent to each building." Flues were "of 22-gauge galvanized metal, one-piece construction."

The three dormitory buildings were heated from a "central heating plant" installed within the heater room of each structure. This plant consisted of "an H.C. Little D.A.C., size 2, oil burner with forced draft." The heat was forced through "overhead ducts into each room, and was regulated by wall registers." Hot water was supplied by a "60-gallon H.C. Little automatic oil-burning hot-water heater located in the utility room."

All staff housing buildings were supplied "with 120- and 220-volt electrical current, the former for lighting and the latter for cooking." The buildings were "painted two coats on the exterior wall, interior trim, and floors." The ceilings and interior walls were "painted with cold-water paint or kalsomine." [48]

Gymnasium-Auditorium. The gymnasium-auditorium, generally referred to as the auditorium, consisted of 14/140 square feet of floor space, and was constructed between January 28, 1944, and September 30, 1944, at a cost of $30,355. The building was located in the firebreak between Blocks 7 and 13 and faced west to B Street. [49] A ceremony for laying the cornerstone of the building was held on February 19,1944. The ceremony featured musical numbers by the camp band and the high school chorus, a flag raising ceremony led by George Nishimura, high school student body president, and an address by Project Director Ralph Merritt and a response Kiyoharu Anzai, chairman of the Block Managers Security Administration, was the only building of the proposed "school group" to be constructed. Construction of other units for the schools was canceled, and "the school buildings that were used were provided by remodeling existing barrack-type buildings." Construction of the auditorium, which was expected to take three months, was delayed by labor shortages resulting from evacuee relocation and seasonal leave and absence of many young evacuee men who were serving in the military. [51]

Construction of the auditorium was supervised by O. E. Sisler, construction superintendent with direct supervision assigned to J. W. Lawing assisted by K. Kunishage, an evacuee resident at Manzanar. Construction of forms for the footings was commenced in early February 1944 by a crew of internees under the foremanship of I. Sakata. The mill work for the door jambs, casings, and interior finish was prepared in the carpenter shop in Warehouse 34 by Jimmy Araki and his evacuee crew. Electrical work was installed by R. D. Feil and an evacuee electrical crew. The plumbing and hot water systems were installed by K. Bowker and an evacuee plumbing crew. Painting and interior decorating was performed by J. Nakahama and an evacuee painting crew. [52]

The gymnasium-auditorium building was "classified as gymnasium type A." The aforementioned "Appraisal Report" noted that "the best of materials were used in this building." "Even the under floor and the inner sheeting" were constructed "of No. 1 fir and cedar lumber, much of it practically clear of knots or sap." It had an overall width of "118 ft. and a length of 119 ft." The main auditorium floor was "80 x 96 feet square." The stage at the east end of the main floor was approximately four feet high and "22 feet deep with an overall width of 30 feet." On each side and adjacent to the stage were dressing rooms that "provided space for equipment and stage trappings." A "wooden truss, supported on each end by wooden columns, supported the proscenium arch which had a clearance of 12 feet from the finished floor."

One-story shed-type sections were constructed along "the full length of the main section, and, on each side" of the building. These sections housed "the toilets, dressing-rooms, lockers, and offices." The "one-story shed-type section on the south side" of the building "extended 40 ft. 9 in. beyond the east end and was used as a health unit."

The auditorium building was built "on piers placed approximately 8 feet on centers each way." Girders were "of 6 in. x "10 in. material with 2 in. x 6 in. floor joists, spaced 12 inches on centers." All floors were "double." The subfloor was "of 1 in. x 6 in. Douglas fir shiplap laid diagonally," while the finished floor was "1 in. x 4 in. tongue-and-grooved Douglas fir, sanded and varnished."

The walls of the main section of the building were "of double thickness of 1" lumber" and "20 feet high." Posts, "12 in. x 12 in., supported five Pratt-type wooden trusses." The trusses were constructed with "split ring connectors and bolts." The ceiling joists were "of 2 in. x 6 in. material." Roof purlins were "2 in. x 10 in. lap jointed at each end and solid at each lap." Diagonal sheeting "was laid over the purlins," and "split-sheet roofing was applied, mopped on with hot asphalt."

A "shed-type roof" was built "over the stage," using "2 in. x 12 in. joists spaced on 24-inch centers with 2 rows of solid bridging." "Sheeting of 1 in. x 6 in. shiplap was laid," and "split-sheet roofing was mopped on."

A concrete porch was built across the (west) front of the building "for an entrance to the three sets of double doors." Above the porch was a "moving picture projection booth, 8 ft. 6 in. x 30 ft. 11 in." The booth was divided into two rooms — "one for the machines and other for the rewinding of the films." Both rooms were "lined with fireproof asbestos board." Two inside stairways led from the main floor to the booth, providing "access and a means of escape in case of fire."

The one-story shed section, housing the toilets, dressing rooms, locker rooms, and health unit, was constructed "with 2 in. x 4 in. studding, with 2 in. x 12 in. rafters spaced 24 inches on centers, and bridged with solid blocking, sheeted and roofed, the same as for the other portions of the building."

The exterior wail finish was "1 in. x 6 in. V shiplap painted to protect it from the weather." The interior wall finish was "of the same material." The auditorium ceiling was finished with "1/2-inch fibre board applied to the ceiling joists flush with the underside of the bottom cords of the trusses." All ceilings in other portions of the building were "of the same material."

Heating for the building was provided by "H.C. Little forced draft automatic oil heaters." The heaters were placed "in the most strategic points." Two were under the stage and "forced the heat directly into the main auditorium through screened grills." Two others "were placed at the front, in the room adjacent to the main floor, and supplied heat in [the] main room." Two others were connected "to overhead ducts and forced the hot air through the grills into the toilets, shower rooms, and offices." The dressing rooms and the health unit were provided with "independent space heaters."

The hot-water system consisted of a "250-gallon Hanson boiler located under the stage and connected with necessary piping running from this point to the health unit, showers, wash rooms, and toilets."

Electric wiring was installed "for the proper illumination and operation of all equipment including four Trane 15 P. projector fans installed in the ceiling of the auditorium." Special "footlights and overhead lighting were provided for the stage." [53]

The still-unfinished auditorium was first used for a performance of the operata "Loud and Clear," written and directed by Louis Frizzell, the Manzanar high school music instructor, on June "16,1944. Two days later the graduation ceremony for 177 high school students was held in the auditorium. Visitors from Bishop, Big Pine, Independence, and Lone Pine attended the operata, and more than 1,000 persons attended each event. During the following three months, construction of the auditorium was completed. Considerable "finish carpenter work" and installation of heating units and hot air ducts, as well as painting and landscaping, was completed by September 30. [54]

Poultry Farm. The poultry farm, consisting of 16 buildings having an aggregate floor space of 29,528 square feet, was constructed between July 8, 1943, and December 31, 1943, at a cost of $21,784. The complex was located "south and west of the Center, adjacent to the fence surrounding the Center." The building complex consisted of two warehouses connected at one end, eight brooder houses, and six laying houses.

The warehouse and office building "was of U-type construction with an overall area" of nearly 3,800 square feet. The warehouse or feed storage space was located "in the two wings, each wing being 20 ft. x 60 ft. with a total floor area of 2,400 sq. ft." The office and egg-storage rooms were "each 16 ft. x 20 ft.," and the dressing and packing room "which connected the two wings was 20 x 30 ft." A butane-fired scalding kettle, used for dressing poultry, was installed in the latter room.

The building was built with "a continuous concrete footing which projected 6 inches above the finished floor line." All floors were "of concrete, troweled to a smooth finish." The walls were constructed "of 2 in. x 4 in. studding plates." The studding was "cut 7 feet long and spaced 2 feet on centers." The walls were completed "by 1 in. x 6 in. sheeting covered with 15-lb. building paper held in place with 3/8 in. x 2 in. batts."

The rafters were "of 2 in. x 6 in. material with 2 in. x 4 in. cross ties and bracing spaced 3 feet on centers, covered with 1 in. x 6 in. redwood sheeting and split-sheet roll roofing." The windows were "4 ft. x 2 ft. 4 in. frameless, awning type."

The eight brooder houses were "14 ft. x 24 ft., divided into two equal-sized rooms, each being large enough for the brooding of 500 baby chicks.": The floors and foundations were "concrete with the foundation walls projecting 6 inches above the finished floor as a protection against flooding from the storm waters." The studding was "of 2 in. x 4 in. material, spaced 2 feet on centers, cut 6 ft. 6 in. for the back wall and 7 ft. 6 in. for the front wall, making a shed-type roof." The rafters were "2 in. x 4 in. material, spaced on 4 feet centers with 2 in. x 4 in. supports running at right angles to the rafters." Roof sheeting was "1 in. x 6 in. redwood covered with split-sheet roll roofing."

The walls were sheeted with "1 in. x 6 in. shiplap, painted to protect it from the weather." The windows were the "frameless awning type." "Kerosene-burning brooders" were used, vented "through the roof with 6-inch galvanized piping." Outside runs constructed "of chicken netting and wood posts" were constructed the full length of each brooder building. The runs were "16 feet wide and were divided in the center with fencing of the same type."

The six laying houses were each "20 ft. x 192 ft., divided into eight units per building." Each unit had an area of "20 ft. x 24 ft., large enough for the housing of 175 hens." The floors and foundations were "of concrete, the foundation projecting 6 inches above the finished floor" for ease in cleaning.

The walls were framed from "2 in. x 4 in. material, cut 7 feet long and spaced 2 feet on centers with 2 in. x 4 in. plates, top and bottom." The siding was "1 in. x 6 in. shiplap while the roof was framed with 2 in. x 4 in. rafters and 2 in. x 4 in. cords, each set braced to form a truss." They were spaced "4 feet on centers and sheeted with 1 in. x 6 in. redwood." "Split-sheet roll roofing" was used. The dividing partitions "between each unit was 1 in. x 6 in. shiplap with 2 in. x 4 in. studding." Each section was provided with "a 2 ft. x 2 ft. roof vent equipped with a trap door for the regulation of heat and air." "Sufficient roosts and laying boxes" were installed "to adequately care for the maximum number of hens housed in each section." The exteriors "of all buildings were painted to protect them from the weather."

"Outside runs, 20 ft. x 24 ft., of 2-inch mesh chicken wire and wood posts" were constructed for each section or compartment. "Wood feeding troughs" were built "for the feeding of mash and other feed."

Each building in the group was provided with running water "piped in from the center mains" and lighted by electricity "from the connections to the lines within the Center." [55]

Root Cellar. A 2,600-square foot (26 feet x 100 feet) root cellar was constructed between July 5 and October 28, 1943, at a cost of $1,438. The cellar, located in the area west of the former camouflage factory buildings, was designed to provide storage for approximately four tons of root vegetables grown on the Manzanar farm.

Three-fourths of the structure was below ground surface. An excavation was made "6 feet in depth and sufficient in size to receive the building." A continuous footing of concrete was poured across the ends down both sides." Two footings "running lengthwise and spaced 10 feet in from the outside line of the building" were constructed. A "2 in. x 6 in. mud sill was bolted to the outside footings and 2 in. x 6 in. studding 8 feet long, spaced 18 inches on centers with a double 2 in. x 6 in. plate" was installed.

A "2 in. x 6 in. plate" extended through the interior of the building and rested on the interior footings. From this plate and extending to "6 in. x 6 in. girders that supported the rafters, 4 in. x 6 in. posts were placed spaced 10 feet on centers and securely braced with knee braces to the 6 in. x 6 in. plates." Two rows of these posts, "3 feet from the center line of the building, acted as supports for the rafters."

The rafters of the building consisted of "2 in. x 6 in. Douglas fir with 2 in. x 6 in. Douglas fir cords." The roof sheeting was of "1-in. Douglas fir securely nailed." The roof was "90-lb. mineral-surfaced felt roofing."

A center runway, "6 feet wide," extended the "full length of the building" and was "flanked on both sides with storage bins." The bins were equipped "with 1 in. x 6 in. wood floors with 1-in. spacing between the boards which rested on 2 in. x 6 in. floor joists spaced on 24-inch centers raised sufficiently from the ground to allow free circulation of air." Ten bins were installed on each side of the runway, "partitioned off with 1 in. x 6 in. boards with a 1-inch space between each."

Air vents were installed over each bin. They were "2 feet square and extended 2 feet above the finished roof." They were equipped with "manually operated dampers."

The inside of the exterior wall was covered with "1 in. x 6 in. boards from floor to plate line, spaced 1 in. apart."

The outside of the exterior walls was covered with "1-inch random sheeting from the top plate line half way to the mud sill." From this point, an "air vent extended from the front of the building down both sides and connected with a 3 ft. x 3 ft. tunnel vent located in the center of the rear end." The air vent around the building was built by "placing 2 in. x 4 in. supports cut on a 45-degree angle and attached to the studding at a point corresponding to the exterior wall sheathing." The "air-vent rafters or supports were covered with heavy building paper to prevent moisture from entering the building."

A "double refrigerator-type door, 6 ft. x 8 ft.," was installed in one end of the root cellar.

A dirt ramp was graded from "regular grade to the building entrance," providing "easy loading and unloading facilities for produce delivered to and from the building." The building was connected with an electric line to provide light.

The root cellar construction was completed "by back filling around the walls" and "covering the roof with a layer of straw topped off with 8 inches of clay." [56]

Hog Farm. The hog farm, constructed between September 1, 1943, and April 30, 1944, at a cost of $7,615, was located "2,600 feet from the southwest corner of the Center."

The hog farm's feed storage building was "20 ft. x 80 ft. with the floor and footings of concrete," The footings projected "6 inches above the finished floor" to prevent water from entering the structure and damaging the stored feed. The walls were "8 feet in height, framed with 2 in. x 6 in. studs and plates." The studdings were placed "4 feet on centers with one 2 in. x 6 in. horizontal nailing girt spaced half the distance between the top and bottom plates." Double doors, "6 ft. x 8 ft. were placed in each end." The siding was "1 in. x 8 in. D. F. sheeting covered with "15-lb. building felt held in place by 3/8 in. x 2 in. batts."

The rafters were "2 in. x 4 in. Douglas fir spaced 4 feet on centers." Each set was trussed with "2 in. x 4 in. cords and braced with knee braces on each third set." The roof was sheathed "with 1 in. x 12. Douglas fir and covered with 90-lb. mineral-surfaced roofing."

The farrowing pens and houses were constructed as a unit. They were "sheds 4 feet high on the back and 6 feet high on the front." Studs, "2 in. x 4 in., were used with 1 in. x 6 in. sheeting." The roof was "covered with 45-lb. roll roofing." Each house was divided into "six pens or sections 8 ft. by 5 ft. each with doors both front and rear connecting to outside pens." The pens on one side were provided "with cement floors for feeding." A "concrete gutter or trough, 12 inches wide and 4 inches deep" extended "the full length of the feeding platforms." This gutter was used as a catch trough for non-edible material.

Three hog houses, each "20 feet square, with a partition" equally "dividing the floor space" were constructed. The structures were built from "rough 1-inch material with 2 in. x 4 in. posts." They had "shed-type roofs, 4 feet high on the low side and 6 feet high on the high side." Each house was surrounded "by board panel fencing." The fencing consisted of "2,070 lineal feet," using "250 posts, 4 in. x 4 in. x 6 ft." and "8,280 lineal feet of rough 1 in. x 6 in. material was used in the paneling." Additional pens were built in which "864 lineal feet of 30-inch hog-fencing and 108 4 in. x 4 in. x 8 ft. posts were used." A "4,310 sq. ft." concrete platform or deck was constructed for feeding.

Water was piped from George Creek to concrete watering troughs in each pen. An electric line was extended from the center to the hog farm to provide electricity for lighting. [57]

Industrial Latrines. Two industrial latrines, having a combined floor area of 768 square feet, were designed and constructed by Ryozo F. Kado, an evacuee stonemason, in the warehouse section of the industrial area at Manzanar between September 8 and November 1, 1943, at a cost of $2,433. The latrines were each "16 ft. x 24 ft. with a center partition separating the men's section from the women's." The foundations and floors were concrete. Studdings, "2 in. x 4 in. x 8 ft. and spaced 2 feet on centers," were covered with "1-inch sheathing and building paper held in place by 3/8 in. x 2 in. batts."

The roof was framed from "2 in. x 4 in. material." The rafters were placed on "3-foot centers, sheathed with 1-inch material, and roofed with split-sheet roll roofing." Windows were of "the frameless awning type, size 4 ft. x 2 ft. 4 in.," while the doors were made "from the material on hand." The women's section was equipped with "five toilets, a wash basin, and a floor drain." The men's section was equipped with "three toilets, two urinals, a wash basin, and a floor drain."

Cold water was supplied by tapping "the main water line," but no "hot water facilities" were provided. A small "oil-burning space heater" was installed in each room as a protection against freezing during periods of extreme cold. [58]

Garage. A garage was constructed "in the motor pool area 60 feet west of the old garage" between November 20, 1944, and April 23, 1945, at a cost of $2,301. The construction was "justified by an acute shortage of space for the repair and maintenance of automotive equipment."

The garage had "a frontage of 48 feet and a depth of 30 feet," with "concrete floors, footings, and a 6-inch concrete curb to keep storm waters from flooding the floors." The garage was divided "into three stalls of equal size — one stall for lubrication, one for washing, and the other for painting."

The walls of the garage "were 12 feet high, framed from 2 in. x 6 in. lumber, spaced 2 feet on centers and covered with 1 in. x 6 in. V shiplap." The roof was constructed by placing "double 2 in. x 6 in. rafters or plates over the outside walls and 2 center partitions." Studding, "2 in. x 6 in., placed 2 feet on centers, supported these rafters or plates." The framing "was completed by purlins of 2 in. x 8 in. material, spaced 2 feet on centers and blocked solid over the rafters and down the center of each span." Sheeting "of 1 in. x 6 in. material laid at right angles to the joists and covered with split-sheet roll roofing, mopped on," completed the roof construction. The partitions were "of 2 in. x 6 in. studding spaced 2 feet on centers and sheathed on one side with 1 in. x 6 in. V shiplap from the floor line to the ridge."

Each stall was provided "with a 12 ft. x 12 ft. door opening equipped with accordion folding doors, made in four sections and supported by an overhead track." Windows were "the double-hung type, 3 ft. 4 in. x 5 ft. 6 in."

The garage was heated by an "H.C. Little D.U. 46 oil-burning heater installed in a 6 ft.. x 6 ft. addition," located in the rear or west side of the building. An automatic fan in the heater circulated hot air to each stall via ducts.

An air-driven "Weaver heavy duty twin-post hoist" was installed in the lubrication room. Water was piped into the building for use in washing equipment and cleaning floors, the latter having sumps and floor drains which were connected to the sewer mains. The garage was connected with lines adjacent to the building for electricity and operation of tools and equipment. Each room was equipped with a work bench.

The exterior walls, window trim, and doors was painted to protect the lumber from the weather. [59]

Addition to Appointed Personnel Mess Hall. An addition to the appointed personnel mess hall that had been built under the supervision of the Corps of Engineers was constructed between May 1 and July 1, 1943, at a cost of $1,680. The addition was justified "to provide adequate accommodations" for the expanding staff at Manzanar. The addition was "of the same type construction as the old section, with dimensions of 20 ft. x 100 ft." The foundation was "of concrete blocks with 4 in. x 6 in. girders and 2 in. x 6 in. joists."

The east side of the original mess hall was removed, and the "top plate was reinforced by the addition of 4 in. x 6 in. girders, supported by 4 in. x 6 in. posts spaced 8 feet on centers." The roof was "gabled the same as the old section with one end of the rafters resting on the center girder." This "formed a gutter through the center of the building which was raised in the center in order to drain the water in the rear and front."

The north end, or kitchen section, was "re-arranged for the convenience of the cooks and kitchen help." A storage room, office, scullery, and utility room and bath were added. Additional hot water facilities were provided by construction "of a 9 ft. x 22 ft. room with a concrete floor, where a Hanson boiler that was not being used in one of the blocks was moved in and connected to the existing piping," thus assuring "an adequate supply of hot water for cooking, dish washing, and cleaning." [60]

Rock Sentry Houses and Police Posts. Three rock sentry buildings, having a combined floor area of 284 square feet, were designed and constructed by Ryozo F. Kado, an evacuee stonemason, during a several month period probably beginning in late August 1942, although the Final Report, Manzanar states that they were constructed between October 1,1943, and May 10, 1944, at a cost of $700. Two of the structures (both of which are extant) were located in the center and one was built at the entrance of the military police post south of the center. The larger of the two stone structures in the center, generally referred to as the rock sentry house, was located at the two-way entrance to Manzanar just of U.S. 395 and was used by the military police to control access to and from the camp. The smaller of the two structures, generally referred to as the rock house, was located west of the rock sentry house in the center of the two-way entrance road to the camp opposite the police station and was used by the center's internal police force.

The stone structures in the center were located at an extension of 1st Street, which ran east-west inside the camp past the "administrative group" of buildings. This street extended outside the camp to U.S. 395 to serve as the main entrance to the facility. An earlier entrance to the camp was located 650 feet north of 1st Street in the vicinity of Block 7. Manzanar Director Nash wrote to the District Engineer of the California Division of Highways on August 14, 1942, requesting permission to move the entrance, and construction probably began the following month. [61]

Stone for these structures, as well as other landscaping projects at Manzanar, was obtained by Japanese crews who were permitted to leave the center with white escort and travel the area within five or six miles of the center to collect rock. [62] The three structures were "all constructed of native stone, hand cut, and set in cement mortar." The first of the three structures to be built was the military police sentry house "at the main gate of the Center." The structure was "13 ft. x 13 ft. x 9 ft. on the outside," while the "inside measured 11 ft. x 11 ft. x 8 ft." The internal police "post in the Center" measured "8 ft. x 10 ft. x 8 ft.," and the sentry house at the military police camp measured "5 ft. x 7 ft. x 7 ft." [63]

The outside walls of the three rock structures were built "on a batter of approximately I 1/2 inch per foot of rise," but the inside walls were built "plumb." In three walls windows were installed and a "glass-paneled door [was placed] in the fourth." Floors and floor joists were "of wood." The roofs were "of hip type with 2 in. x 4 in. rafters and 1 in. x 6 in. sheathing covered with cedar shingles."

Each building was equipped with inside electric lights and "canopied exterior lights." The exterior lights were necessary for "the identification of persons entering or leaving the Center or Military Post at night." [64]

Children's Village Heater Room. A "H.C. Little automatic oil-burning hot-water heater" had been installed originally in a room adjacent to the living and sleeping quarters in the Children's Village. As a safety measure, the heater was moved to "a 6 ft. x 6 ft. outside room adjacent to the main building." This new room was constructed "with a cement floor, with 2 in. x 4 in. studding spaced 2 feet on centers covered with 3-inch sheathing and 15-lb. building paper." The roof was "shed type with 2 in. x 4 in. rafters and 1-inch sheathing covered with roll roofing." [65]

Boiler Room at Military Post. To provide an adequate supply of hot water for the kitchen and mess hall at the military post, a "shed-type room, 7 ft. x 10 ft.," was constructed on the east side of the kitchen between June 1 and July 5, 1944, for $100. The Army supplied a boiler (Pan American type 40B, size 185) that was installed by the WRA.

The small boiler room had a concrete floor. The studdings were "of 2 in. x 4 in. material spaced 2 feet on centers and sheathed with 1 in. x 6 in. V shiplap." The roof was "of 2 in. x 4 in. rafters and 1 in. x 6 in. sheathing covered with 90-lb. mineral-surfaced roofing." [66]

Gas Service Station. A small gas service station was constructed at Manzanar between November 1 and December 6, 1942 for $125. The station was necessary to "expedite the servicing of the automotive equipment" and to provide "storage for the oil and grease." The one-room building was constructed approximately 50 feet west of the motor pool office.

The 10-foot x 16-foot structure was built with "a concrete floor projecting 4 feet beyond the front side of the building." It had "2 in. x 4 in. rafters spaced 2 feet on centers with 1-inch sheathing covered with building paper." The roof was "shed type with 2 in. x 6 in. rafters spaced 4 feet on centers extending 4 feet beyond the front wall forming a canopy or shade for changing tires."

The walls were "7 feet in the on the low side and 8 feet on the high side or front." "Casement type sash windows" were installed "in the back wall and a sash of the same type was used on each side of the door," which was placed in the center of the front wall. The station featured a work bench, oil-drum-rack, and tire racks. Electric lines were extended from the motor pool office to provide light for servicing automobiles after dark or for emergency calls during the night. [67]

Oil Distribution Sheds. Thirty-six oil distribution sheds were constructed between April 8 and December 1, 1943, at a cost of $1,014. The sheds were constructed in each block on the south side of the oil distribution tanks, "to house the oil containers and distributing cans," "protect them from dust, dirt, and inclement weather," and "provide a regular storage place as protection against fire." The sheds were "4 ft. x 6 ft. x 5 ft. enclosed on two sides and one end, with a door on the other end."

The sheds were framed with "2 in. x 3 in. studding in the corners and 2 in. x 2 in. plates, top and bottom." The siding and roof were "of 1 in. x 4 in. tongue-and-groove flooring, applied vertically to the wall." The roof was sloped "6 inches for drainage, then covered with 90-lb. roll roofing." The exteriors were painted as a protection against the weather. [68]

Dehydration Plant. A 233-square-foot dehydration plant was constructed between July 29 and September 30, 1943, at a cost of $428. The plant, located in the area west of the former camouflage factory buildings and near the aforementioned root cellar, provided facilities for processing surplus vegetables raised on the Manzanar farm. The structure consisted of a drying room built "with 2 in. x 4 in. material for framing and covered with 1 in. x 4 in. tongue-and-groove flooring." The room was "fitted with racks for holding the ventilated trays." The equipment for drying or dehydrating consisted of "an oil-fired furnace or blower that forced the hot air into the room through ducts." [69]

Rice Malt Room. A rice malt room was constructed between October 16 and December 17, 1943, at a cost of $233. The room was used for preparation of rice malt used in making "miso, a Japanese food, to supplement the mess hall diet." This room was built in the north end of "camouflage building 4" and was "12 feet square with 7-foot ceilings." It was framed with "2 in. x 4 in. material and ceiled inside and out with 1 in. x 4 in. tongue-and-groove flooring." Hot-air ducts and electric lights were installed. Electric power was connected from a line in the former camouflage building, while the hot-air ducts were connected to a heater and blower used in the camouflage building for vegetable dehydration. [70]

Men's Latrine in Block 15. The original men's latrine in Block 15 was severely damaged during a wind storm, requiring reconstruction during June 14-26, 1943, at a cost of $121. Small portions of the west and south walls were left standing and "had to be replumbed and braced." The "wrecked section was torn apart and cleaned of nails that were re-used in the reconstruction." Little new material was necessary "since the plumbing to the boiler installations was not damaged." [71]

Duck Boards for Food Warehouses. To comply with WRA regulations governing food storage, duck board were constructed in the food warehouses between August 1 and October 6, 1944 at a cost of $236. The boards were constructed "with three 2 in. x 6 in. stringers, 8 feet long and spaced one inch apart to allow for ventilation." By placing the panels (each eight feet long and four feet wide) side by side "various sized platforms could be arranged to suit the requirements of the crated or sacked foods that were placed upon them." [72]

Garbage Can Wash Rack. A garbage can wash rack was constructed adjacent to the hospital boiler house, providing steam daily cleaning and sterilizing "250 garbage cans" on a daily basis. A concrete platform, "18 ft. x 35 ft.," was built, and two steam and hot-water cleaners were installed. The cleaners consisted of "a circular steel pipe perforated to allow for the flow of steam and hot water." The cans were placed, "with the bottom side up, over these rings and a flow of hot water and steam was applied, cleaning and sterilizing the can in one operation." Grease and garbage removed was washed "into a grease trap and sump that was connected to the main sewer line." [73]

Hospital Incinerator. A hospital incinerator was constructed to provide a sanitary method for disposal of contaminated refuse from the hospital, morgue, and operating room. This structure was constructed with "native stone with outside dimensions of 8 ft. x 8 ft. x 6 ft. and a stack 12 feet high of the same material." The incinerator contained a "fire box, 4 feet in width and 5 feet in depth, with an overall height of 3 ft. 6 in." A grate "of 1 1/2-inch pipe raised 16 inches from the bottom" was installed. The space beneath the grate acted as an ash depository and regulated the draft through two sheet-metal doors that were installed on the ash depository. Two similar doors were placed on the fire box. As a safety measure to prevent the spread of fire, a cement slab was laid "extending 4 feet on each side of the incinerator and 10 feet out in front." [74]

Utility Extension Construction

In addition to the new construction projects, the WRA expanded the existing utility systems at Manzanar to accommodate the needs of the relocation center during 1942-45.

Staff Housing. The new staff housing constructed by the WRA was built in an area removed from existing power lines and utilities. Thus, it was necessary to "install five new poles complete with cross arms, insulators, brackets, and guy wires." The installation included "920 lineal feet of primary wiring, 2,850 lineal feet of secondary wiring, six 50-K.V.A., two 15-K.V.A., one 37 1/2-K.V.A., and one 7 1/2-K.V.A. transformers."

To provide water and fire protection for the staff housing area it was necessary to install "1,323 feet of 3-inch and 270 feet of 2-inch black iron pipe, and 830 feet of 1 1/4-inch galvanized iron pipe, including bibbs and gate valves." Three "3-inch" and two "6-inch" fire hydrants were installed.

The new sewer lines consisted of "1,025 feet of 8-inch, 510 feet of 6-inch, and 1,294 feet of 4-inch vitrified clay pipe, as well as six brick-lined manholes complete with cast-iron rings and covers." [75]

Poultry and Hog Farms. Five poles and 1,924 lineal feet of electric wire were installed to provide light for the poultry farm. Eight poles and 5,200 lineal feet of wiring were used to light the hog farm.

To supply water and fire protection to the poultry farm, "1,777 feet of 4-inch and 65 feet of 2-inch black iron pipe, 95 feet of 1-inch galvanized iron pipe, and four 3-inch fire hydrants" were installed.

Water for the hog farm was supplied from George Creek through "800 feet of 8-inch concrete irrigation pipe into a concrete box or tank 10 feet square and 6 feet deep." The water was carried from the tank to the feeding pens "through 250 feet of iron pipe." From the feeding pens the water was distributed through "415 feet of 1-inch pipe and 195 feet of 1/2-inch pipe." [76]

Garage. Electric lighting and power for the new garage was provided by extension of "approximately 750 feet of wire from a "15-K.V.A. transformer located on a pole at the south end of the reefer house." A "1-inch water line of 100 lineal feet" was extended from the original garage and connected with water piping installed in the new structure. Disposal of sewage was provided by installation of "400 lineal feet of 4-inch vitrified clay sewer pipe and one brick-lined manhole." [77]

Well 169. Well 169 was dug to provide "a stand-by source for domestic water supply in the event that Shepherd Creek should freeze over during the winter months, and to increase pressure in the mains in case of fire." A "9 ft. x 9 ft. frame building with concrete floor and base" housed a "20-H.P. Pomona pump and motor, complete with 6-inch suction pipe and one 20-H.P. 220-volt I.C. switch and one 20-H.P. 220-volt magnetic starter."

To connect the well with the mains, "400 lineal feet of 6-inch steel pipe, complete with fittings," was laid. For electrical connections to this pump, "3,200 lineal feet of overhead wire and one 15-K.V.A. transformer" were installed. [78]

Reservoir Enlargement. The "storm reservoir" on Shepherd Creek was enlarged from 540,000 gallons to approximately 900/000 gallons (several maps indicate 800,000) to provide an adequate supply of domestic water for Manzanar. The reservoir enlargement was accomplished by raising the concrete-lined embankments "to a sufficient height." [79]

Recreational Facility Construction

Provision for recreational facilities at Manzanar under WRA administration was the responsibility of the Community Development Committee, composed of appointed staff and evacuees and charged with the "overall planning of the physical facilities of the camp." The Community Services Section, also composed of staff and evacuees, organized recreation programs and events which took place at these facilities. [80]

Although the Community Development Committee did not exist before the WRA took over the camp, some minimal recreational facilities had been provided by the WCCA prior to June 1, 1942. For instance, the WCCA designated Building 15 in each block for recreation. On June 13, 1942, the WRA reported that every four blocks were grouped together in a zone in which each Building 15 served a particular recreational purpose. One building served as an adult activity center, a second as a children's center, a third for arts and crafts, and a fourth as a library. The exceptions were Block 1, where Building 15 was used by the Boy Scouts, and Block 2, where Building 2 served ay a men's sports center since the entire block was occupied by men. [81]

Soon after assuming administration of Manzanar on June 1, 1942, the WRA began construction of recreational facilities in an effort to make the camp more hospitable for the evacuees. Using evacuee labor, a stage was constructed adjacent to Mess Hall 8 in June 1942. The following month an elevated sand-filled wrestling arena was built west of Block 10, and the foundation for a judo arena in the firebreak between Blocks 10 and 16 was laid. The completed judo arena included a wood floor covered with sawdust that had a canvas stretched over it to hold the sawdust in place. In July 1942 an area southwest of Block 12 was graded for an outdoor theater. Improvised facilities built informally in July by evacuee volunteers included a basketball court in which baskets were nailed to trees in the firebreak between Blocks 10 and 11 and a dancing area in Block 23 created by stringing up lights. Six basketball courts were built that month, but it is not known if these were improvised courts or more substantial courts built by WRA work crews. [82]

Other athletic facilities, for which construction dates are not available, were built in a sports field in the firebreak between Blocks 8 and 14. These facilities included formal basketball, volleyball, and tennis courts. Clay-like soil was trucked into the camp from the Owens River for use on the surface of the basketball and tennis courts. Other firebreaks were utilized for numerous baseball diamonds and two football fields, complete with goal posts. [83]

Construction of recreation facilities continued in August 1942 when a 40-foot x 60-foot concrete stage and benches for 2,000 people were built for an outdoor theater, and a 100-yard-wide area on the southwest side of the camp was cleared for a 9-hole golf course. In addition, evacuees built a "furo," or Japanese-style bath, in the men's shower room in Block 6. Constructed with cement rather than traditional wood, the "furo" could fit eight people in its 105-degree water. The following month, "furos" were built in Blocks 10, 12, 17, 22, 23, and 29, By October 30 half of the blocks in the center had baths. Evacuees also built a sand box for children in Block 17. [84]

The completed outdoor theater was used twice, once in the fall of 1942 when Dillon S. Myer, Director of the War Relocation Authority, addressed the high school assembly on the opening of the school, and a week later for dedication ceremonies for the theater. After these two events, the theater was deemed too far from the center of the camp. Thus, a 20-foot x 30-foot stage, for which construction dates are not available, was built against the recreation building in Block 16. [85]

By 1943 Manzanar was experiencing a shortage of building space for recreational activities because of the need to remodel so many structures for school classroom space. As a result, Blocks 3, 4, 9, and 10 had no recreation halls, and it became necessary to have the recreation halls in Blocks 6, 14, 18, 27, 29, and 35 serve four blocks each. In addition, temporary recreation halls were established in the ironing rooms in Blocks 9 and 22 to serve four blocks each as well. [86]

A kendo arena (35 feet x 60 feet), complete with a small dressing room, was constructed in the spring of 1943. However, interest in this traditional Japanese sport waned after many evacuees born in Japan were sent to the Tule Lake Relocation Center in 1943-44. In April plans were developed to build a baseball diamond in the firebreak between Blocks 19 and 25, and a quarter-mile track west of Block 36. By the spring of 1943 the Community Activities Section had organized an extensive recreation program, including; (1) a woodcraft shop in Block 4, Building 15; (2) an art center in Block 12, Building 15; (3) a flower making class in Block 26, Building 15; (4) three sewing classes in Blocks 16, 26, and 28, Buildings 15; (5) a music hall in Block 24, Building l5; and (6) a library in Block 22, Building 15. [87]

The aforementioned "Appraisal Report," prepared in April 1946 listed a variety of recreational facilities at Manzanar. Among those described were 27 basketball courts, 2 double tennis courts, 2 wood slides, 5 wood swing set units, and 6 softball fields, each with a wood backstop behind home plate. Evidently four other baseball or softball fields had backstops constructed of rough poles and scrub lumber. A wooden observation tower (8 feet x 12 feet and 12 feet in height) was constructed between Blocks 19 and 25 to provide space for scorekeepers and guards on duty at the ball games. [88]

Remodeling Construction

Warehouse Reflooring. The original flooring installed in the 40 warehouses at Manzanar was "of single thickness, 1 in. x 6 in. shiplap." Because of the "constant wear and tear," it was necessary for the WRA to refloor 30 of these buildings, each having an area of "1,881 square feet." Reflooring required "approximately 2,351 square feet of 1 in. x 4 in. Douglas fir flooring per building." Material for the new flooring was supplied by the Corps of Engineers. [89]

Interior Lining of Partitions in Evacuee Buildings. The evacuee barracks were originally constructed with three cross partitions of plywood running from the ceiling to the ridge, supported by 2 inch x 4 inch studding plates and cross ties. No interior linings or ceilings were provided for the walls, floors, or ceilings. After inspecting the barracks the WRA determined that "four apartments to a building were insufficient in number to accommodate the family groups included in a population of 10,000 persons." In addition, it was found that "the walls, flooring, and ceilings afforded too little protection against the cold winds and dust prevalent during the winter months and early spring."

To provide more hospitable living quarters for the evacuees, the Corps of Engineers supplied building materials to the WRA, with the exception of plasterboard, for partitions and floor covering. Beginning in June 1942, the walls and ceilings in 460 barracks buildings were lined with celotex plasterboard, and an "average of two partitions per building" were added to make additional apartments. The floors in all apartments were covered with "Mastipave floor covering." Mastipave, a substitute for linoleum (sometimes referred to as Pabco), was installed in black, but occasionally in red, on barracks floors. Thirty-six mess halls were "ceiled with plaster board," and twenty mess halls had their floors covered with Mastipave. Approximately "3,780 square feet of plaster board and 222 square yards of Mastipave floor covering" was used in each of the 460 barrack buildings. The 36 mess halls required "5,564 square feet of plaster board and 445 square yards of Mastipave floor covering per building."

Each of the 30 recreation halls required "3,564 square feet of plaster board." In 20 of the halls 222 square yards of Mastipave was used to cover the floors. [90]

The new partitions in the barracks were not completed until July 1942, but by using evacuee labor, all 36 blocks were far enough along to be occupied by June 30, 1942. After the partitions were completed, it was reported that Manzanar had a total of 2,250 "apartments" for 10,500 evacuees — 1,100 for three to five people, 870 for five to six people, and 280 for seven people. All floors in the barracks were covered with linoleum by October 30,1942, and the walls and ceilings were lined with plasterboard by November 1942. Remodeling work in the mess halls advanced incrementally, with 31 in operation by July 1942, 32 in August, 35 in September, and 36 in October." [91]

Relocation and Records Offices. Because the Relocation and Records offices in Block I, Buildings 4 and 5, respectively, "depended on each other for data concerning evacuee records," more space and safer storage were needed. As a result, an addition or annex, "20 ft. x 40 ft., typical T.O.-type construction," was built connecting the two buildings. The annex was partitioned into three rooms for use of the Relocation Officer and his assistant. Partitions in the two buildings were rearranged to provide more convenient work space for both the Relocation and Records offices.

Eventually all of the barracks buildings in Block 1 were converted into administrative office space. [92]

Electrical and Plumbing Use of Warehouse 5. Warehouse 5 was remodeled to "handle the maintenance program more efficiently and release space for other use." A board partition was constructed dividing the electrical and plumbing warehouse into two sections. The north section of the building was used by the electrical unit and for storage of plumbing supplies. One corner, "12 ft. x 16 ft., was partitioned off for an office." The remainder of the space was utilized for storage of electrical and plumbing supplies on wood shelves. The south section of the building was left vacant. [93]

Hospital. The original hospital ward floors and most of the enclosed walks were constructed without floor covering. Because of "excessive mopping and cleaning," the floors "soon became badly worn and in need of either replacing or extensive repairing." Thus, "Mastipave floor covering was laid in seven wards, each having a floor space of 25 ft x 150 ft., and in 500 lineal feet of enclosed walks." The work required "3,100 square yards of Mastipave and 200 gallons of linoleum paste."

The original hospital interior walls and ceilings had no "covering." To keep the building clean, it was found necessary to cover the walls and ceilings with plasterboard. This job was difficult, because the overhead sprinkler system and other overhead piping necessitated use of additional furring and blocking to leave the sprinkler system exposed below the ceiling line. Approximately "3,500 square feet of plaster board and 2 in. x 3 in. material for furring and backing" was used.

As Caucasian doctors replaced evacuee doctors who relocated, it became necessary to remodel the doctors' quarters. The Caucasian doctors requested housekeeping facilities which had not been supplied to the evacuee doctors occupying the building. The remodeling work, which took place during the summer of 1942, included conversion of the building into four apartments and the installation of sinks, kitchen cabinets, and storage closets. [94]

Schools. Under the terms of the aforementioned construction standards for relocation centers agreed upon by the Corps of Engineers and the War Relocation Authority, the Corps was not responsible for the construction of schools. To carry out its responsibility for the construction of schools, the WRA turned to the Farm Security Administration for assistance. The FSA had constructed housing and community facilities for poor rural communities and migrant workers since its establishment during the Depression and housing for defense plants and military training centers since the military buildup for World War II had begun.

In June 1942 the FSA provided Manzanar with plans for two elementary schools, a junior high school, a senior high school, and a combination gymnasium and auditorium to be used by both the junior and senior high schools. A shortage of contract labor made it necessary for the WRA to plan on using evacuee labor under the supervision of a FSA contract engineer to construct the schools. A site was cleared west of Block 36 in June 1942, and construction was expected to begin in July. Delays in the start of construction resulting from unavailability of materials resulted in postponement of anticipated school construction until 1943. In the meantime, temporary school facilities were established in vacated barracks in Blocks 1 and 7. [95]

Plans for the schools at Manzanar included ten classroom buildings, one gymnasium, one shop building, one library for the junior and senior high schools, and nine classroom buildings and one assembly building for the two elementary schools. However, as it appeared that building materials for the schools might not become available in 1943, the Manzanar administrators made a special request to WRA director Dillon Myer for permission to "go ahead" with construction of certain school facilities which were necessary to meet California standards for accreditation. Among these were a high school auditorium, as well as shop and science facilities. Myer approved construction of the needed facilities, and the Manzanar administration made plans for the construction of the new buildings as well as the remodeling of existing facilities. [96]

After the War Production Board revoked authorization for construction of new buildings for schools in the relocation centers, the Manzanar camp administrators determined to convert existing temporary barracks into school rooms. To meet "minimum standards with regard to space requirements, lighting, heating, and sanitation" for the fall semester of 1942, Block 7 was remodeled for the high school and Block 16 was remodeled for the elementary school. In these buildings "54 partitions, 20 ft. x 8 ft.," were removed and "41 new partitions [were] constructed." To provide sufficient lighting, 312 additional windows were installed. To provide separate entrances to the individual classrooms and to comply with fire regulations, "155 new doors" were installed. Approximately "90 additional lighting fixtures" were added to provide adequate light for night classes. Mastipave floor covering was laid in five buildings. The woodwork in all classrooms was painted, and the walls and ceilings were kalsomined. Shelving was installed in the supply rooms, and 30 drinking fountains were installed. Oil-fired space heaters, connected to outside oil supply tanks, were installed in 42 classrooms in the converted school buildings.

A 4-burner electric range, refrigerator, and sink were installed in the south half of Block 16, Building 8 for the use of adult English classes. These "installations were considered necessary by the Education Section to augment and develop an adult English program where English was taught functionally to Issei men and women through classes in family cooking, food, nutritive values, and child development, as stipulated by the WRA Washington Office."

A high school homemaking program was developed in Block 7, Building 10. This building was converted "into a model 2-room apartment," including a "4-burner electric range and a refrigerator." The ironing rooms in Blocks 2 and 7 were remodeled for use as clothing rooms for high school students. Chemistry and physics classes were conducted in the remodeled laundry room in Block 7.

In addition to the remodeling efforts for the elementary and high schools, facilities were provided for preschool classes in several locations at Manzanar. These included: Block I, Building 14; half of Building 15 in Blocks 9, 20, 23, and 32; one-third of Building 15 in Blocks 17, 30, and 31; and Block II, Building 15. [97]

Mattress Factory in Warehouse 25. To facilitate evacuee relocation a cotton mattress factory was developed in Warehouse 25 as an occupational training program for Manzanar residents who had no trade. In addition to the occupational training provided, the manufacture of cotton mattresses made it possible "to replace the old straw ticks and thus eliminate a fire hazard."

Warehouse 25 was remodeled to accommodate the cotton mattress factory. Remodeling of the warehouse consisted of "reinforcing the underpinning and girders and laying a 1 in. x 4 in. floor over the original flooring." Work benches were constructed, and a motor-driven blower and shredding machine were installed. To operate the electrical equipment, an additional 25-K.V.A. transformer was installed. [98]

Community Hostel. In November 1942 construction of a community hostel was commenced in Block 34, Building 15 to provide treatment and care for patients whose illnesses, including mental impairment and physical disabilities, did not require hospitalization, thus relieving the crowded conditions at the hospital. The building that was remodeled for the hostel was located east of the hospital and sufficiently close for the convenience of the hospital staff. The remodeling work was completed on March 11, 1944. "A barrack-type building, 20 ft. x 100 ft.," the hostel was partitioned into three sections. One section was for men, one for women, and one in between housed baths, toilets, and a diet kitchen. A "H.C. Little hot-water heater" was installed to provide hot water for the bathrooms and kitchen, and wooden ramps with hand rails were installed at all doors."

Warehouse 36. After a fire destroyed the maintenance office and store room on July 28, 1944, the north half of Warehouse 36 was remodeled for use as a maintenance office. Plaster board was installed on its ceiling and walls, and additional windows were added. Mastipave floor covering was laid on the floor, and the ceiling and walls were kalsomined. The south half of the building was fitted with shelving and bins for storage of equipment supplies, and materials. [100]

Appointed Personnel Recreation Building. Because many of the WRA appointed personnel at Manzanar did not have automobiles or other means of transportation to nearby towns, an "existing barrack-type building [in Block 1] was remodeled" to provide recreational facilities for these people. Partitions were relocated, and the building was divided into three rooms. The south room was used for floor games and other activities, the center room for light refreshments, and the north room for cards, reading, and table games. In the refreshment room a serving counter, sink, and four booths with tables and benches were installed. A butane hot water heater was installed to supply hot water for dishwashing and the wash rooms. The floors were covered with Mastipave, and the walls and ceiling were kalsomined. [101]

Canteen and General Store. While Manzanar was under the administration of the WCCA, a canteen and general store was established in Block 8, Building 14. The WRA obtained plans for additional stores for Manzanar from the FSA in 1942, but the new buildings were later considered unnecessary and their construction was canceled. After the WRA took over administration of the camp, several new services, such as shoe repair, barber, and beauty shops, which had been temporarily housed in a warehouse, were moved into Block 27, Building 14 in July 1942. [102]

Under the WRA, the consumer needs of the evacuees were served by Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises, Inc., established on September 2, 1942. This organization was operated by evacuees in space rented from the WRA.

Block 8, Building 14 continued in use as a canteen and general store by Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises under the Business Enterprises Section. The badly worn floor was replaced by a new one. The walls and ceiling were "covered with plaster board so as to make the building more easily heated, to keep perishables from freezing in winter, and to eliminate dust that sifted in through cracks and around windows of unlined walls." [103]

By August 1944 Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises, in addition to operating the canteen and general store, supervised a variety of shops that it had established throughout the camp. These shops included: a shoe repair shop in the Block 3 ironing room; a watch repair shop in the Block 10 ironing room; a laundry and dry cleaning shop in the Block 10 ironing room; a dry goods store in Block 21, Building 14; a beauty shop in the Block 15 ironing room; a barber shop in the Block 21 ironing room; a sporting goods store and flower shop in Block 16, Building 1; a photo studio in the Block 30 ironing room; a fish store in the Block 18 ironing room; a dress shop in the Block 32 ironing room; an American Express office in Block I, Building 6; a gift shop in Block 16, Building 15; and an outdoor movie theater in the firebreak between Blocks 20 and 21. [104]

Motor Pool Office. The original motor pool office built under the supervision of the Corps of Engineers was located in a portion "of a barrack-type building in block 2 which was not conveniently located to the garage and storage lot." To provide adequate space for this office a building used by the Corps of Engineers was moved adjacent "to both the fenced parking lot and the garage." Two existing partitions in the building were rearranged, and one partition was added. Floors were patched and the walls and ceilings were kalsomined. A counter was built in the dispatcher's office and electric wiring extended from the power line adjacent to the building. [105]

Administration Building. The administration building was originally constructed without any wall or floor covering and was divided into four large offices. To eliminate dust and dirt and to make the building more easily heated, the interior walls were lined with plasterboard and the floors were covered with Mastipave. Because of the increasing number of appointed personnel and the continual addition of administrative duties at Manzanar, it became necessary to divide the interior of the administrative building into smaller offices using plasterboard partitions, thus affording more privacy. [106]

Butcher Shop. The "reefer house" between the two refrigerator structures was remodeled during the summer of 1942 to provide more storage space and facilitate the handling of meat storage. The original meat-hanging racks were removed and replaced with racks of heavier material, thus doubling the capacity of the original installation.

During the summer, the temperature in the room housing the refrigeration machinery for meat and vegetable storage often rose to a point where it interfered with normal operation of the equipment. Accordingly, the interior of the room housing the refrigeration machinery was "lined with plaster board and a 16-inch suction fan was installed in each room to draw in outside air." [107]

Shoyu Factory. A "shoyu factory" was established in the ironing room and laundry building in Block 1 to make shoyu, "a Japanese food manufactured from soybeans and used in the mess halls to supplement the regular food." To provide sufficient space for the factory, an addition was constructed connecting the two buildings.

The addition was "of regular army T.O.-type construction with 2 in. x 4 in. rafters spaced 4 feet on centers." The roof and walls were sheathed "with 1-inch material." The roof was covered with "15-pound building paper." A cement floor was laid and a floor drain was installed that connected with the sewer line. [108]

Equipment Shed 4. Equipment Shed 4 was used by the Agriculture Section at Manzanar for storage of seed and fertilizer. It was originally built with the front side open to store farm equipment. However, for the storage of seed and fertilizer, the front side was closed in to keep out rain, snow, and dust.

Studding of "2 in. x 6 in. material was placed 4 feet on centers with horizontal cross ties also spaced 4 feet on centers." Sheathing "of 1 in. x 12 in. was used, the whole exterior was recovered with 15-lb. building paper, and a new roof of 90-lb. felt was applied." Large louvers were installed in each end of the building to provide ventilation. [109]

Evacuee Post Office. A plasterboard partition was changed in the evacuee post office to provide more work and storage space. During the remodeling work, approximately 200 square feet of additional shelving was installed. [110]

Engineering Office. Additional office space was needed in the Engineering Office for drafting and relief of overcrowded conditions. Partitions were changed to make use of an additional 16 feet of the building for a drafting room. The room was equipped with files for plans and maps, and new equipment, such as drafting tables, a blueprinting machine, and a washing tray, were added. A new door opening was made, connecting the main office with the drafting room. A partition was moved to provide more space in the Senior Engineer's office, and the lighting fixtures were rearranged to provide better lighting. [111]

Police Station. The original reception building in the Administrative Group was remodeled by the WRA for use as a police station. As part of the remodeling effort, a concrete floor was constructed, and a jail cell and three partitions was installed. The new station was occupied by the Manzanar internal police department during late July 1942. [112]

Conversion of Camouflage Factory Buildings. After the Army terminated the camouflage net project in December 1942, the buildings that had been used for the factory were turned over to the WRA and adapted for various uses. One of the buildings, an open-sided wood-floored shed that was 24 feet x 150 feet with 8-foot high walls, was converted into a warehouse. Another building, a concrete floored shed 24 feet x 100 feet with 18-foot high walls, was converted to a garage for automotive and heavy equipment. Three partially open concrete floored sheds, each 24 feet x 300 feet, were converted into carpenter, plumbing, and electrical shops. [113]

Warehouse 31. In August 1942 the WRA began construction of a 300-foot x 50-foot building adjoining the camouflage net factory to serve as a garment factory for the manufacture of work clothes in the camp and for sale outside of Manzanar. At the same time cement floors were poured in Warehouse 31 for additional factory space, and power sewing machines were installed in the warehouse. Construction of the new building adjacent to the camouflage factory never progressed beyond the foundation because of a shortage of materials, and in March 1943 the WRA determined that the garment factory facilities in Warehouse 31 were sufficient. [114]

Guayule Lath House. A "guayule nursery experiment" was commenced at Manzanar during the spring of 1942, under the direction of the California Institute of Technology. The project, which was taken over by the U.S. Forest Service on June 1, was designed to "find a suitable method to produce rubber in the shortest possible period." The work was carried out in the guayule lath house constructed south of Block 6 during July 1942. As the project progressed, the building was expanded to twice its size later that month, finally measuring 104 feet x 136 feet. [115]

Refrigeration

According to the Final Report, Manzanar, refrigeration for the Manzanar relocation center under the WRA was supplied "by electrically operated equipment of different sizes and types for storage buildings, mess halls, and appointed personnel quarters."

Vegetable and meat storage was provided in two refrigerated warehouses "with a storage capacity of approximately 11,000 cubic feet." Each warehouse was equipped with "four evaporator condensers of humid-air type." The compressors were "Brunner, model E, type E.C., driven by 7 1/2-H.P., 220-volt, 3-phase Fairbanks Morse electric motors." Drayer Hanson condensing units were used, equipped with "1/4-H.P Pacific Pumping Co., 1 1/4-inch water pump." Mess halls within the center and at the military post were equipped with 35 20-cubic-foot refrigerators: 32 Supercold, 2 Viering, and 1 Catalina.

The 40-cubic-foot refrigerators in the mess halls, at the hospital, and at other locations. These refrigerators included: 37 Ward, 1 Supercold, and 1 Barker Bros. In addition, there were three 50-cubic-foot Hussman-Ligionier boxes for replacements, and a 4-body Market Forge, model 5MA, forced-air type unit, with York compressor was installed at the hospital morgue.

Exclusive of the morgue unit and the refrigerated warehouse, there were 77 commercial refrigerators in the center. Domestic or household installations comprised 90 units:

LAND IMPROVEMENTS

The Manzanar War Relocation Center comprised an area of 5,464.09 acres. The entire acreage was in Township 14 S, Range 35 E, except the garbage pit which was located in Township 14 S, Range 36 E. The acreage components were:

The program for land improvements at Manzanar consisted of (1) clearing and developing; (2) irrigation and drainage; (3) streets and roads; (4) bridges; and (5) fencing,

Clearing and Developing

Most of the land to be developed at Manzanar had once been covered with orchards or farms. Thus, "extensive further development was not needed." The relocation center's program consisted of clearing sage and smaller brush and leveling the land for irrigation. Because of wind erosion of the light sandy soil, leveling of agricultural land was a major project. Approximately 360 acres were cleared and improved. Of this total, approximately 80 percent of the center area and 1 percent of the agricultural land was cleared and developed under the Corps of Engineers prior to June 1, 1942. The remainder of the area was cleared and improved by the WRA Agricultural and Engineering Sections after that date. [118]

Irrigation and Drainage

Approximately 12.3 miles (67,162 feet) of irrigation ditches and pipelines were constructed for agricultural purposes by the WRA. The water from George, Bairs, and Shepherd creeks was distributed for irrigation through pipelines and ditches by gravity. These creeks were fed by melting snow, resulting in considerable fluctuation of the streams. George and Shepherd creeks flowed year-round, but Bairs Creek dried up in late summer. Because of the fluctuation and insufficient supply of water for late crops (Shepherd Creek, for instance, fluctuated from a maximum of 47 second-feet during early summer to a minimum of 3 second-feet during the winter), the Manzanar irrigation system was supplemented by the City of Los Angeles' water and "power wells" in the area. Wells 76 and 95 supplied water for the fields south of the center, and Well 92 for a portion of the fields north of the center. Because of crooked casing, Well 99 in the north area could not be used.

The WRA Engineering Section constructed a concrete dam on Shepherd Creek and distributed water from there to farm-area ditches through open laterals lined with rock and concrete. The laterals were approximately 6 feet wide at the top, 3 feet wide at the bottom, and 3 feet deep. Wood flumes were constructed over "coulees" in this system. The farm area had a system of open ditches lined with rubble and concrete. The ditches were approximately 3 feet wide at the top, 1 foot wide at the bottom, and 1 1/2 feet deep with wood gates for controlling the water.

A concrete dam was constructed on George Creek and "connected by 7,450 feet of 12-inch concrete pipeline with the control box." This watercourse, in turn, connected with the existing system on Bairs Creek, from which the outlet emptied into open ditches lined with rubble and concrete that distributed water to the south fields. Wooden gates were installed in these ditches for controlling the water.

The pipelines and ditches constructed for irrigation by the WRA cost approximately $27,980. The types of irrigation lines included:

Streets and Roads

There were approximately 14 miles of oiled-surface streets in the Manzanar center and 1 1/2 miles of oiled-surface roads in the farm area outside of the fenced center area. Approximately 5 1/2 miles of dirt roads were constructed in the farm area and to the reservoir and sewage treatment plant.

The cost for street and road construction was low due to the type of sandy soil which required little additional gravel before the surface could be oiled. Because of the center's topography and the small amount of rainfall, the streets and roads were elevated very little above the adjacent ground, thus making it unnecessary to install many drainage structures. All surfacing of streets and roads at Manzanar was "by the penetration method using M.C. 2 asphalt except at the entrance to the Center from highway 395 and the one block on First Street which was road-mixed to carry heavy traffic of large freight trucks."

The Corps of Engineers contracted "for surfacing 151,808 square yards" on "parts of different streets" at a cost of $14,574. The WRA surfaced new streets and roads for the staff housing area, completed surfacing of streets in the center, and constructed and surfaced roads in the farm area. The penetration coat of M.C. 2 asphalt that was applied cost approximately 2 1/2 cents per square yard. [120]

Bridges

The WRA constructed two bridges and a cattle guard on roads outside of the center. These structures were;

1. A bridge constructed on the farm road over the north fork of Shepherd Creek was 12 feet long and 20 feet wide. The structure had stone masonry walls and a wood superstructure and deck. Its cost of construction was $250.

2. A bridge constructed on the farm road over the south fork of Shepherd Creek was 12 feet long and 15 feet wide. The bridge had stone masonry walls and a wood superstructure and deck. Its cost of construction was $150.

3. A cattle guard constructed on the road to the sewage treatment plant was 9 feet long and 14 feet wide. Railroad steel rails were installed on "6-inch centers laid on timber stringers placed on concrete abutments." The structure cost approximately $200. [121]

Fencing

The WRA constructed fences for the poultry and hog farms. Existing fences were repaired at the cattle farm as part of the camp's maintenance program. Girdner and Loftis, Great Betrayal,[122] The aforementioned "Appraisal Report" stated that the fence around the chicken ranch consisted of 4-7 strands of double barbed wire and was 2,360 feet in length, while the fence at the hog farm consisted of 5-7 strands of double barbed wire and was 1,740 feet in length. [123] The aforementioned "Fixed Asset Inventory" noted that the fences in the poultry and hog farm areas were constructed by the WRA from wire already at the site. Posts for the fences were cut by the evacuees. The posts were five feet in height and varied between 3" and 6" in diameter. [124]

Landscaping, Gardens, Parks, and Picnic Areas

In a speech on July 3l, 1942, Roy Nash, Project Director at Manzanar, described the drab, monotonous setting of the camp. He noted:

There is nothing beautiful about Manzanar except its background of the Sierra Nevada. The sun rising out of Death Valley looks down upon a square mile of barracks arranged in nine great wards separated by wide fire breaks, each made up of four identical blocks. In each block, sixteen identical buildings 20 x 100 feet of the simplest board and tar paper construction; what the Army calls the 'Theatre of Operations' type. Fourteen are living quarters, one of double size - a mess hall, the last a recreation hall. In the center of each block are latrines and shower baths with abundant hot water, for men and for women; a wash-house with tubs where clothing can be laundered; an ironing room where they can be dried. [125]

A project report on October 30, 1942, provided a description of Manzanar that indicated the transitory nature and military-like conformity of its construction and physical layout. The report stated:

Outwardly the Center presents the same monotonous, drab, ugly tarpaper appearance: straight lines, uniform block arrangements, 15 barracks and a mess hall in exact 40-feet-apart locations; each block with two latrines, a laundry room and ironing room between the rows. . . . There is very little in the physical construction of Manzanar to indicate permanence; the entire Center impresses one with its temporary nature. [126]

In addition to the efforts of evacuees who worked on WRA improvement projects conducted by the camp Public Works and Community Activities sections, many evacuees at Manzanar undertook personal projects to beautify their surroundings. To make the camp more hospitable, evacuees at Manzanar undertook efforts to improve their surroundings by planting lawns and small flower gardens adjacent to their barracks and larger "Victory Gardens" in firebreaks. Some evacuees also built Japanese-style rock gardens and parks. The result was the transformation of a monotonous, drab, and barren camp landscape into a community that took pride in its appearance.

After assuming administration of Manzanar, the WRA requested that the Farm Security Administration design a park for the camp that could accommodate at least 1,000 people. However, it is not known if the design was provided, and no such park is evident in maps or photographs of the camp. In addition, the Soil Conservation Service prepared a planting plan for Manzanar, entitled "A Program of Conservation Operations," which recommended use of 21,000 trees and 25,000 shrubs as a response to the large amount of dust blown around the camp area resulting from its sandy soil, arid climate, and high winds. While the camp administration did carry out some planting and landscaping projects, it did not fully implement the planting plan. [127]

Meanwhile, the evacuees went forward with their own camp beautification efforts. As early as June 15, 1942, a Victory Garden was planted in the firebreak between Blocks 11 and 17, and by July lawns were being planted between barracks. The area around the main administration building, which was described by a visitor as "beautful," had also been landscaped by July. That month Ryozo Kado, a professional rock garden artist, had four young evacuees working under him to construct gardens in the camp. [128]

A project report written on August 8, 1942, stated that the "transformation of sagebrush covered semi-arid land into a green-studded landscape has already made considerable headway." The report noted that 155 lawns had been planted between barracks, six fish ponds stocked with carp had been constructed and several "picturesque rock gardens bordered with local shrubbery have contributed to the elimination of 'dustspace' (open ground)." In addition gardens had given "the center an increasingly 'green' appearance." [129]

One of the best examples of the evacuees' beautification efforts at Manzanar was the Japanese Cherry Park located in front of the Children's Village. In September 1942, F. M. Uyematsu, owner of Star Nurseries in Montebello, California, agreed to donate approximately 1,000 Japanese cherry trees as well as a large number of shrubs and plants to the camp for landscaping purposes. The WRA secured a military permit for him to travel to his nursery and bring the trees to Manzanar in his own truck during late 1942. Uyematsu, who was a member of the camp Community Development Committee, supervised the planting of the trees in what became known as Japanese Cherry Park.

Rose Park, located in the firebreak between Blocks 33 and 34, was also constructed in 1942. This park included rosebushes, 100 different types of flowers, and a Japanese tea house. [130]

One of the most prominent landscaping projects by the evacuees at Manzanar was the construction of Merritt Park by Kuichiro Nishi during a ten-month period in 1943. The park, which was named in honor of Project Director Ralph P. Merritt, covered a large area and included rock gardens, ponds, at least one rustic wood bridge, and a gazebo.

Nishi designed a memorial stone for the park, on which were inscribed Japanese characters, dedicating the park "to the memory of fellow Japanese Immigrants" who, although ushered to "this place with the breaking of friendly relations between the two countries" "have come to enjoy this quiet, peaceful place." He dedicated the park "for the enjoyment of the people and to the memory of the time of our residence here." [131]

Merritt questioned the propriety of putting Japanese characters on the stone, believing that it would "not make for friendly understanding" with the people of the Owens Valley, upon whom "we must depend to maintain the park in later years." [132] It is not known if the memorial stone was included in the park.

During the time that Merritt Park was under construction, the WRA determined that it would not sponsor construction of additional parks at Manzanar because of the shortage of materials and a lack of funds. In the future, materials for new parks and landscaping projects would have to be provided by evacuees, although the WRA would allow them to use surplus government materials. In order to maintain the parks already constructed, the landscapers Nishi and Uyematsu, who were on the payroll of the Public Works Section, would each be allowed a team of three evacuees to assist them in this task. [133]

Other landscape improvement projects at Manzanar included the development of picnic areas in and around the camp. When the barbed wire fence on the south side of the camp was moved out 100 yards, bringing Bairs Creek into the southwestern corner of the camp, work was begun in July 1942 to create a picnic area, including landscaping, paths, rustic bridges, and open air fireplaces. The picnic area became so popular with the evacuees that permits had to be issued for its use. During 1943 an area in the northern part of the camp was also developed as a picnic area with a large fireplace built by the Public Works Section, and after the evacuees were permitted to leave the center area, two more picnic areas were developed, one about one-half mile north of the camp and the other along George Creek, about one mile from the south fence. [134]

On August 4, 1943, the Manzanar Free Press reported that a new entrance sign for Manzanar had been placed in a "little rock and cacti garden constructed by Mr. Kado and his crew." The words "Manzanar War Relocation Center" were written "on the beautiful 3-1/2 x 6 foot sign with an antiqued background." Located near the highway, the sign was supported "by two 12 x 12 inch posts" that were ten feet in height. [135]

Cemetery

Most of the people who died at Manzanar were cremated or buried at places other than the camp. However, a number were buried in the camp cemetery, located on the west side of the barbed wire fence enclosing the center area.

The first recorded burial in the Manzanar cemetery was Matsunosuke Murakami on May 16, 1942. Official correspondence indicates that 28 people were buried in the cemetery during operation of the camp. According to a staff memorandum on June 28, 1945, fifteen burials remained in the cemetery, the most recent being December 19, 1944. [136]

On July 24, 1943, the Manzanar Free Press reported that the center of the Manzanar cemetery had been selected as the site for construction of a monument by members of the Town Hall Committee and the Buddhist and Christian "priests." At the request of the committee, R. F. Kado, manager of the masonry department, agreed to construct the monument. He had "years of experience on masonry work and has shown his ability on the hospital garden and guard-house entrance." [137]

Funds for the construction of the monument, which cost approximately $1,000, were raised by evacuee contributions. One side of the obelisk bore the date and place of the monument. The Japanese characters inscribed on the other side of the monument translate to English as "This is the place of consolation for the spirit of all mankind." [138]

In late August 1943 a well-attended service was held to dedicate the monument. Mr. Senkichi, an evacuee, was the master of ceremonies. Other speakers included Father Steinbach, pastor of the Catholic Church at Manzanar, Rev. Oda, the camp's Buddhist priest. Project Director Merritt, and Town Hall chairman Kiyocharu Anzai. A letter of thanks and a memento were presented to Kado for constructing the memorial obelisk.[139]

As Manzanar was closing in late 1945, relatives of the 15 persons who remained buried in the cemetery were contacted concerning their wishes for the deceased. As a result nine bodies were removed from the cemetery and reburied elsewhere.

On January 7, 1946, nearly two months after the camp closed. Project Manager Ralph Merritt asked A. M. Sandridge, Senior Engineer - Public Works, to install a fence around the cemetery. His memorandum stated:

Will you please put a three-wire fence, with posts 4 feet high, around the smallest area of the Manzanar Cemetery necessary to enclose the remaining six graves. Have your men smooth out places where bodies have been dug and removed. Leave markers only on the six graves in which there are bodies. Leave a small opening in the fence about two feet wide for people to enter. . . .

The little graves to the north of the cemetery are not to be included. These are the burying places only of pets. [140]

Photo 21: Manzanar War Relocation Center/camouflage net buildings on right;
photo by Dorothea Lange, July 1, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 22: Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Dorothea Lange, July 1, 1942;
RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 23: Manzanar War Relocation Center from guard tower, 1943;
Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 24: Barracks, Manzanar War Relocation Center, looking west; Toyo Miyatake
Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 25: "Ironing Room, Laundry Room, Women's Latrine, Men's Latrine," Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California

Photo 26: Street scene, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 27: Barracks, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake
Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 28: Children's Village, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatake Photograph Studio, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 29: Mrs. Nakamura and two children, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 30: Hospital, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake
Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 31: Monument in cemetery, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 32: Military police camp, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center, 1942;
David Kruse Photograph Collection.

Photo 33: Administration Building, Manzanar War Relocation Center.

Photo 34: Auditorium, ca. 1944, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 35: Guard tower, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 36: Pool in Merritt Park, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 37: Guard tower, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection,
Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 38; Guard tower, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatakc Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio.San Gabriel, California.

Photo 39: "Maintenance Crew," Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 40: Three evacuee boys, guard tower, and barbed-wire fence on perimeter of residential area,
looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 41: Reservoir Stilling Basin, Manzanar War Relocation Center;
Toyo Miyatake Photograph, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.