MANZANAR Historic Resource Study/Special History Study

Cover

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Cover Photo: Entrance to Manzanar, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center, Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress

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Preface

Introduction

Establishment
Geographic Location
Purpose
Significance/Background

Historical Abstract — Significance of Manzanar War Relocation Center

Chapter One: Historical Development of the Anti-Asian Tradition in the Western United States

The Chinese
The Japanese

Chapter Two: Exclusion of Persons of Japanese Ancestry from the West Coast of the United States — Historic Context for Executive Order 9066

Background of Exclusion and Evacuation Planning
Decision for Mass Evacuation
Mass Evacuation of Japanese in Perspective

Chapter Three: Evacuation of Persons of Japanese Ancestry from the West Coast of the United States — Implementation of Executive Order 9066

Congressional Acts
Initial Proclamations to Implement the Executive Order
Voluntary Evacuation
Establishment of the War Relocation Authority and the Wartime Civil Control Administration
Assembly Center Selection
Terminal Island Evacuation
Initial Evacuation to Manzanar
Commencement of Mandatory Evacuation: Evacuation of Bainbridge Island
Evacuees' Property Disposal
Second Stage of Evacuation
Completion of Evacuation
Treatment of German and Italian Aliens

Chapter Four: Assembly Centers under the Administration of the Wartime Civil Control Administration

Assembly Centers
Construction and Facilities
Administration
Security
Evacuee Experiences
Transfer to Assembly Centers
Housing and Facilities
Family Separation
Food, Sanitation, Clothing, and Medical Care
Life in the Centers
Security

Chapter Five: Relocation Centers under the Administration of the War Relocation Authority

War Relocation Authority
Memorandum of Agreement between the War Department and the War Relocation Authority
War Department Actions Taken to Comply with Agreement
War Relocation Centers
Site Selection
Site Acquisition
Site Descriptions
Design and Construction
Design
Typical Center Lay-Out
Construction
Description of Buildings
Transfer of Supplies from Assembly to Relocation Centers
Transfer of Evacuees from Assembly Centers to Relocation Centers
Evacuees' Experiences during Transfer to Relocation Centers

Chapter Six: Site Selection for Manzanar War Relocation Center — Historical Background of Owens Valley and Manzanar Vicinity

Site Selection
The Manzanar Site in March 1942
Geography and History of Owens Valley
Natural Setting
Geologic History
History
Exploration
Mining
Settlement
Hostilities Between Indians and Euro-Americans
Development: 1860-1890s
Cerro Gordo and Bodie Mining Booms
Carson and Colorado Railroad
Owens Valley at the Turn of the 20th Century
Los Angeles, the Aqueduct, and Water Controversy
Owens Valley During the 1930s
Early History of Manzanar

Chapter Seven: Early Days at Manzanar — Commencement of Construction and Operations under the Wartime Civil Control Administration, March-May 1942

Construction Begins
Arrival of First Evacuees
Administration
Early Organization
Early Problems at Manzanar
Adjustment to Center Life
Housing
Latrine Usage
Financial Concerns
Vocational Worries
Wages
Evacuee Experiences
Pre-Evacuation Rumors About Manzanar
'Early Days at Manzanar' (By an Evacuee)
Togoro Mizutani Family
Art Koura
Shiro Nomura

Chapter Eight: Construction and Development of the Manzanar War Relocation Center — 1942-1945

"Basic Construction" under the Corps of Engineers
Buildings and Structures
General Group
Military Police Group
Administration Group
Hospital Group, Including Children's Village
Miscellaneous Group
Water and Sewage Disposal Systems
Water
Sewage Disposal
Electrical, Telephone, and Fire/Police Signal Systems
Electrical System
Telephone System
Fire/Police Signal System
Land Improvements
Status of Construction at Manzanar when the War Relocation Authority Assumed Administration on June 1, 1942
Construction at Manzanar under the War Relocation Authority
New Construction
Staff Housing
Gymnasium-Auditorium
Poultry Farm
Root Cellar
Hog Farm
Industrial Latrines
Garage
Addition to Appointed Personnel Mess Hall
Rock Sentry Houses and Police Posts
Children's Village Heater Room
Boiler Room at Military Post
Gas Service Station
Oil Distribution Sheds
Dehydration Plant
Rice Malt Room
Men's Latrine in Block 259
Duck Boards for Food Warehouses
Garbage Can Wash Rack
Hospital Incinerator
Utility Extension Construction
Staff Housing
Poultry and Hog Farms
Garage
Well 169
Reservoir Enlargement
Recreational Facility Construction
Remodeling Construction
Warehouse Reflooring
Interior Lining of Partitions in Evacuee Buildings
Relocation and Records Offices
Electrical and Plumbing Use of Warehouse 5
Hospital
Schools
Mattress Factory in Warehouse 25
Community Hostel
Warehouse 36
Appointed Personnel Recreation Building
Canteen and General Store
Motor Pool Office
Administration Building
Butcher Shop
Shoyu Factory
Equipment Shed 4
Evacuee Post Office
Engineering Office
Police Station
Conversion of Camouflage Factory Buildings
Warehouse 31
Guayule Lath House
Refrigeration
Land Improvements
Clearing and Developing
Irrigation and Drainage
Streets and Roads
Bridges
Fencing
Landscaping, Gardens, Parks, and Picnic Areas
Cemetery

Chapter Nine: Historical Background of the Evacuee Population at the Manzanar War Relocation Center

Japanese/Japanese American Communities of Origin
Historical Development of Japanese/Japanese American Communities of Evacuee Origin
California
Settlement Patterns and Occupational Characteristics
Community Structure
Los Angeles County
1869-1930s
1940
Urban Settlement: Distribution
Urban Settlement: Occupational Structure
Rural Settlement
Summary: Pre-World War II Economic Trends in Los Angeles County Japanese/Japanese American Community
Divisions in Japanese/Japanese American Communities of Evacuee Origin Three Major Groups — Issei, Nisei, Kibei
Issei
Nisei
Kibei
Political Divisions
Conservatism and Pro-Americanism as American Citizens League (JACL)
Leftist Anti-Fascism as Represented by Organizations
Prewar Japanese/Japanese American Communities and Evacuation Experiences of Manzanar Evacuee Population
Terminal Island
Little Tokyo — East Los Angeles
West Los Angeles
Venice
Pasadena
Burbank
San Fernando Valley
Florin
Stockton/French Camp Area of San Joaquin County
Bainbridge Island
Represented by the Japanese
Communist-Affiliated Labor

Chapter Ten: Operation of Manzanar War Relocation Center — March-December 1942

Manzanar under the WCCA
Organizational Structure
Status of Center Operations on June 1
Manzanar under the WRA
Organizational Structure
Appointed Personnel
New Manzanar Administrator
Policies of Project Director Nash
Deteriorating Morale and Public Relations at Manzanar
Manzanar Camp Operations during 1942
Reports Division
Manzanar Free Press
Documentary Reports
Daily Block Reports
Administrative Reports
Mess Hall Operations
Under WCCA
Under the WRA
Policies: Cost
Policies: Menus
Policies: Sanitation
Service
Food Supplies: Procurement
Food Supplies: Warehousing
Food Supplies: Refrigeration
Personnel: Appointed
Personnel: Evacuee
Fire Protection
Postal Service
Community Government
Under the WCCA
Under the WRA
Internal Security
Under the WCCA
Under the WRA
The Police
The Program: Evacuee Attitudes Toward Cooperation with Police
The Program: Gangs
The Program: Juvenile Delinquency
The Program: Recreational Groups
Community Welfare
Under the WCCA
Organization
Early Duties
Under the WRA
Establishment of Community Welfare Section
Activities During 1942: Clothing
Activities During 1942: Public Assistance Grants and Unemployment Compensation
Activities During 1942: Handicapped Children
Activities During 1942: Churches
Activities During 1942: YWCA and YMCA
Activities During 1942: Red Cross Unit
Statistics
Registration and Records Unit
Census
Evacuee Employment
Under the WCCA
Under the WRA
Manufacturing/Industry
Camouflage Net Factory
Clothing and Furniture Factories
Community Alterations Shop
Typewriter Repair Shop
Sign Shop
Food Processing Units
Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises
Army Canteen under the WCCA
Manzanar Community Enterprises under the WCCA
Manzanar Community Enterprises under the WRA
Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises under the WRA
Agriculture/Food Production
Guayule Experiment
Recreation
Recreation under the WCCA
The Program
Activities: Preschool Program
Activities: Athletics
Activities: Arts and Crafts
Activities: Music
Activities: Social Activities
Activities: Gardening
Activities: Libraries
Activities: English Instruction
Special Events and Programs:
Special Events and Programs:
Special Events and Programs:
Special Events and Programs:
Special Events and Programs:
Recreation under the WRA
Recreational Facilities
Landscaping and Parks
Outdoor Theater
Relationship with Schools
Education
Summer Program of 1942
Orientation for WRA Schools
School Organization for the Fall Term
Teacher Training Program
Evacuee Teachers
School Opens
College Education
Health
Under the WCCA
Under the WRA
Flag Pole Dedication
"I Am An American" Program
Memorial Day Service
Arts and Crafts Exhibits
Variety Talent Shows

Chapter Eleven: Violence at Manzanar on December 6, 1942 — An Examination of the Event, Its Underlying Causes, and Historical Interpretation

History
Events of December 5-6, 1942
Assault on Fred Tayama
Arrest of Harry Y.Ueno
Sunday Morning Meeting
Sunday 1:00 p.m. Mass Meeting
Merritt's Interaction with Evacuee Crowd
Merritt's Agreement with the Committee of Five
Dispersal of Crowd
Ueno's Return to Manzanar
Sunday Evening Mass Meeting
Hospital Incident
Police Station Incident
Casualties
Aftermath
Arrests
Protective Custody for Evacuees Whose Lives
Additional Military Assistance
Maintenance of Essential Center Services
Schools
Funerals/Memorial Services
Negotiations Between Evacuee Committees and WRA Administrators
Christmas Day
Causes
WRA Investigations
Togo Tanaka, January 25, 1943
Evacuee Perspectives as Documented by the Community Analysis Section
Robert L. Brown and Ralph P. Merritt, Final Report, Manzanar, 1946
Joseph Kurihara Statement in March 1944 and Merritt Interview with Kurihara, November 12, 1945
Military and Congressional Investigations
Historical Perspectives
WRA-JACL Perspective
Ethnic Perspective
Were Threatened

Chapter Twelve: Operation of Manzanar War Relocation Center — January 1943 - November 1945

Administration Organization
Appointed Personnel
Evacuee Personnel
Center Photography
Community Government
Reestablishment
Peace Committee
Designations of "Mayor of Manzanar" and "Father of Manzanar"
"Peace of Manzanar"
Education
Recommencement of School
School Standards
Buildings/Facilities
Preschool Program
Elementary School Program
Secondary School Program
Adult Education Program
Libraries
Hospital Class
Summer Programs
High School Organizations
Elementary School Organizations
Adult Education Organizations
Special School Events
Visual Education Museum
Public Relations
Parent-Teachers Association
Fall 1945
Industries
Clothing Factory
Furniture Shop
Alterations Shop
Typewriter Repair
Sign Shop
Domestic Sewing Machine Repair Unit
Mattress Factory
Food Processing Units
Agriculture
Vegetable Production
Poultry Farm
Hog Farm
Beef Cattle
Guayule
Mess Hall Operations
Community Activities
Departmental Activities
Arts and Crafts
Athletic Activities
Entertainment, Social, and Club Activities
Music
Gardening
Youth
Community Activities Cooperative Association
Public Relations with Owens Valley Residents
Special Events
Closing Recreational Program During the Summer of 1945
Health
Medical Hospital Services
Public Health Services
Medical Social Work Activities
Closing Health Section Procedures
Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises, Inc.
Operating Agreement
Facilities
Procurement
Merchandising Methods
Patronage Rebates
Services
Internal Security
Appointed Personnel
Evacuee Police
Reorganization of the Police Department
Facilities and Equipment
Police Program
Public Relations
Animal Shelter
Safety Proceedings
Patrolling
Investigations and Arrests
Relocation Office Assistance
Violations
Fire Protection
Community Welfare
Community Hostel
Personnel and Office Space
Inter-Camp Transfers
Crystal City Family Internment Camp Transfers
Internees and Parolees
Children's Village
Evacuee Property
Establishment and Operation
Property Shipment
Military Inspection
Final Phases
Accomplishments

Chapter Thirteen: The Role of the Military Police in Providing External Security for the Manzanar War Relocation Center

Development of Policies to Provide for External Security at Assembly and War Relocation Centers within the Jurisdiction of the Western Defense Command: 1942
First Order Governing Function of Military Police at Evacuation Centers, April 15, 1942
Establishment of Organizational Responsibility for Implementation of External Security Provisions
External Security Provisions in Memorandum of Agreement between the War Department and the War Relocation Authority, April 17, 1942
Civilian Restrictive Orders and Public Proclamation No. 8
Memorandum of Understanding as to Functions of Military Police Units at the Relocation Centers and Areas Administered by the War Relocation Authority July 8, 1942
Circular No. 19, Policies Pertaining to Use of Military Police at War Relocation Centers, September 17, 1942
Authorization to Issue Permits for Ingress to and Egress from War Relocation Project Areas, August 11, 1942
Delegation of Authority to Issue Permits for Ingress to and Egress from Relocation Areas, August 24, 1942
Parcel Inspection at Certain War Relocation Authority Projects, September 13, 1942
Emergency Employment of Japanese Evacuees Outside of War Relocation Authority Projects Located within Evacuated Areas of Western Defense Command, September 21, 1942
Authorization to Issue Permits for Ingress to and Egress from War Relocation Project Areas for Purposes of Emergency Hospitalization and Incarceration, October 29, 1942
Military Police Unit Operations at Manzanar War Relocation Center: 1942-45 641 Camp Manzanar
First Military Police Unit at Manzanar: 747th Military Police Escort Guard Company
Investigation of Military Police, May 1942
Construction of Guard Towers
322nd Military Police Escort Guard Company, June 1942
Investigation of Military Police, August 31 - September 1, 1942
Small Dam at Southwest Corner of Center
Settling Basin — Manzanar Water System
Shepherd and Bairs Creeks
Los Angeles Aqueduct
Reinforcement of 322nd Military Police Escort Guard Company After Violence on December 6, 1942
319th Military Police Escort Guard Company: June 1, 1943
Changes in Military Police Patrol Procedures, December 1943
Reduction of Military Personnel and Modification of Military Mission at War Relocation Centers, March 28, 1944
Service Command Unit 1999: April 20, 1944 (Redesignated Ninth Service Command Detachment, Manzanar Relocation Center, November 1944)
Changes in External Security Arrangements, Spring - Fall 1944
Security Measures at Manzanar During Closing Phases of the Camp. 1945

Chapter Fourteen: The Loyalty Crisis at Manzanar — Registration, Segregation, and Participation in the Armed Forces

National Historic Context
Registration Program
Military Background of Program
WRA Administrative Background of Program
Program Implementation
Evacuee Reactions to the Registration Program
Loyalty Review
Participation in U.S. Armed Forces
Selective Service Milestones
100th Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat Team
Impact of Military Participation on Relocation Center Life
Congressional Investigations
Segregation Program
Manzanar Historic Context
Registration Program
Program Implementation
WRA and Army Investigations of Evacuee Reaction to Registration
Segregation Program
Program Implementation
WRA Investigations of Evacuee Reaction to Segregation Program
Cultural Perspectives on Segregation Program
Participation in the Armed Forces
Military Intelligence Service
Service in the U.S. Army
Evacuee Reaction

Chapter Fifteen: The Relocation Program at Manzanar, September 1942 - 1945

National Perspective 739
Initial Relocation Program Plans of the War Relocation Authority
Commencement of College Student Relocation
Seasonal Agricultural Work in Western Sugar Beet Fields
Adoption of Basic Leave Regulations
Problems Associated with Implementation of Relocation Program
Establishment of Relocation Field Offices
Changes in Leave Procedures
Relocation in 1943
Seasonal Leave, 1943-44
Local Resettlement Committees
Relocation Work at the Centers
Progress of Relocation in 1944
Liquidation Program
Final Relocation Drive
Resettlement Patterns
Manzanar Perspective
Early Phase of Relocation Program (September 1942 - May 1943)
Commencement of Relocation Program
Early Leave" Efforts
Seasonal Agriculture Furlough Work
FBI Clearance
Early Relocation Trends
November
First Relocations
Leave Office Established
Impact of Manzanar Incident" on Relocation
Establishment of First Hostel
Reorganization of the Relocation Office, December 1942 - February 1943
Impact of Registration, Segregation, and Leave Clearance Programs on Relocation
Relocation Rates, 1943-44
Middle Phase of Relocation Program (June 1943 — January 1945)
Factors That Influenced Relocation Program
General
Fear
Pro-Japanese Influence
Uncertainty about the Future
Roots in California
Group Loyalties
Climate
WRA and Evacuee Staff Interpretation
Obstacles Posed by WRA Policies
WRA Organizational Relationships
Initiatives to Promote Relocation Program
Influence of Relocated Evacuees
Short-term, Trial and Seasonal Leaves
Use of the Manzanar Free Press
Visual Advertising
The Relocation Committee
Zadan Kai
Block Managers Involvement
Relocation Counseling Program
Staff Counseling
Promotion of Individual Employment
Relocation Library
Use of Evacuee Counselors
Centerwide Relocation Counseling Program
Evaluation
Final Phase of Relocation Program (January to November 1945)
Reaction to Announcement of Impending Center Liquidation
Character of Residual Population on December 31, 1944
Preference for California
Major Obstacles
Housing
Employment
Exclusion Lists
Personnel Representatives
Publicity
Procedural Changes
Social Welfare and Institutional Cases
Permanent Dependency
Offers
Temporary Assistance
Personnel Adjustments
Relocation Trends in 1945

Chapter Sixteen: The Manzanar War Relocation Center Site — November 21, 1945 - Present

War Relocation Authority Close-out Operations
National Perspective: 1945-1947
Manzanar Perspective, November 21, 1945 - March 9, 1946
Fixed Asset Inventory
Surplus Property
Clean-up Operations
Disposal of Evacuee Property
Relocation Center Cemetery
Labor Needs
Reductions in Force
Shipment of Files and Records to Washington
Final Report
Liquidation and Disposal of Manzanar War Relocation Center under General
Land Office (Bureau of Land Management after July 16, 1946) and War Assets Administration: March 10, 1946 - April 1, 1947
Appraisal Report
Maintenance of Site
Disposal of Buildings, Structures, and Improvements
Disposal of Agricultural Crops
Manzanar Site, 1947-1960s
Manzanar Airport, 1956 - 1972
Increasing Recognition of Historic Significance of Manzanar, 1969-1992
Manzanar Becomes a National Historic Site, March 3, 1992
Manzanar National Historic Site, 1992-Present

Epilogue

Endnotes

Appendixes

Appendix A: Executive Order 9066, February 19, 1942
Appendix B: Executive Order 9102, March 18, 1942
Appendix C: Western Defense Command and Fourth Army
Appendix D: Standards and Details
Appendix E: Table 33 — Transfers from Assembly to Relocation Centers

Bibliography

Manuscript Sources
Newspapers
Maps
Photographs
Published Works
Books
Periodicals
Government Documents/Publications
Theses and Dissertations
Technical Studies
Transcribed Oral Interviews
Miscellaneous
List of Repositories Consulted but Where Research Was Not Conducted

Photo 1: Shepherd House (built in 1872).

Photo 2: School, Manzanar.

Photo 3: Manzanar Community Hall, ca. 1912. Building in back was Hatfield's (later Bandhauer's) General Store which housed the post office.

Photo 4: Van Lutzow (at left), laying cement pipe at Manzanar.

Photo 5: Kispert Ranch house on George Creek.

Photo 6: V. C. Lutzow at the construction site of Manzanar making cement pipe for the Manzanar subdivisions.

Photo 7: Construction of barracks, Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 8: Construction begins at Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 9: Manzanar War Relocation Center under construction, 1942, looking west.

Photo 10: Barracks under construction, 1942, Manzanar War Relocation Center, looking west.

Photo 11: Evacuees at Lone Pine train station awaiting bus to take them to Manzanar; photo by Francis Stewart, May 29, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 12: Vaccination of newcomers, Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 13: Evacuees checking in at Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 14: Evacuee on cot in barracks, Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 15: Unpacking, Yamashita and Takai girls, Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 16: Doorway of Block 5, Building 2, Apartment 4, Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 4, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 17: Manzanar Post Office; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 18: Manzanar Free Press office, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Dorothea Lange, July 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 19: Impounded evacuee automobiles, Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 20: Registering for work, Manzanar; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 21: Manzanar War Relocation Center, camouflage net buildings on right; photo by Dorothea Lange, July 1, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 22: Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Dorothea Lange, July 1, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 23: Manzanar War Relocation Center from guard tower, 1943; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 24: Barracks, Manzanar War Relocation Center, looking west; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 25: "Ironing Room, Laundry Room, Women's Latrine, Men's Latrine," Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 26: Street scene, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 27: Barracks, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 28: Children's Village, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Studio, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 29: Mrs. Nakamura and two children, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 30: Hospital, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 31: Monument in cemetery, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 32: Military police camp, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center, 1942; David Kruse Photograph Collection.

Photo 33: Administration Building, Manzanar War Relocation Center.

Photo 34: Auditorium, ca. 1944, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 35: Guard tower, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 36: Pool in Merritt Park, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 37: Guard tower, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 38: Guard tower, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 39: "Maintenance Crew," Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 40: Three evacuee boys, guard tower, and barbed-wire fence on perimeter of residential area, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 41: Reservoir Stilling Basin, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 42: Sign on west boundary, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 43: Camouflage net plant, Manzanar War Relocation Center, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 44: Irrigation for Manzanar War Relocation Center farm; photo by Dorothea Lange, June 30, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 45: Clearing land to south of residential area, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Dorothea Lange, June 30, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 46: Guayule experiments, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Dorothea Lange, June 28, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 47: Police station and evacuee police, Manzanar War Relocation Center, 1942.

Photo 48: Mess hall interior at mealtime, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 49: Japanese checkers, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 50: Art school, artificial flowers, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Dorothea Lange, June 30, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 51: Boy Scouts at Memorial Day service, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Francis Stewart, May 30, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 52: Hospital latrines for patients between barracks, serving temporarily as hospital wards; photo by Dorothea Lange, July 3, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 53: Evacuee gardens, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Dorothea Lange, July 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 54: George S. Takemura, landscape artist, building and wishing well, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Francis Stewart, May 24, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 55: Block 19, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection; Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 56: Line crew at work, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Authority; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 57: Sumiko Shigematsu, foreman of power sewing machine women, 1943; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 58: Benji Igushi driving tractor, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.614

Photo 59: Potato field, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 60: Guayule field, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 61: Hog farm, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 62: Oil storage tanks with school children, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 63: Science lecture, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 64: Third grade class, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Francis Stewart, February 10, 1943; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 65: Dancing in the auditorium, ca. 1944, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 66: High school graduation ceremony, auditorium, 1944, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 67: Sunday school class, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 68: People leaving Buddhist church, winter, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 69: Evacuee fire department, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 70: Baseball game, looking east, observation deck in background, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 71: Basketball game, guard tower in background, looking west, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 72: Girl's volleyball game, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 73: Golf course, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Francis Stewart, February 13, 1943.

Photo 74: Band concert, outdoor theater, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 75: Manzanar Cooperative Enterprises store, 1943, Majako Suguki, clerk; Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 76: Manzanar Co-Operative Enterprises office, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 77: "Handy Family, Block 20," Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 78: Funeral services in auditorium for Rev. S. Nagatomi, Buddhist priest, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 79: Roy Takeno, editor, Manzanar Free Press, and two men in front of newspaper office, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 80: Roy Takeno, town hall meeting, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 81: "Mr. Ishi, Flower Grower," Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Photo 82: Mess line, noon, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 83: Toyo Miyatake family, 1943, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Ansel Adams Photographs, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress.

Photo 84: Entrance to Manzanar during construction, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Clem Albers April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 85: Pruning trees, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1943; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 86: Military police detail, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch. National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 87: Discussion over construction of water pipes, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Clem, Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 88: Evacuees return after clearing brush, boundary, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Clem Albers, April 2, 1942; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 89: Temporary military police tent camp, 1942, Manzanar War Relocation Center, looking west; Seaver Center for Western History Research, Los Angeles, California.

Photo 90: Lt. Eugene Bogard, U.S. Army, explaining registration, Manzanar War Relocation Center; photo by Francis Stewart, February 11, 1943; RG 210, Still Pictures Branch, National Archives and Records Administration.

Photo 91: Memorial service for Pfc. Frank Arikawa, auditorium, August 6, 1944, Manzanar War Relocation Center; Toyo Miyatake Photograph Collection, Toyo Miyatake Studio, San Gabriel, California.

Figure 1: Civilian Exclusion Order No. 7

Figure 2: Prohibited Area Exclusion Order No. 7

Figure 3: Instructions to All Persons of Japanese Ancestry

Figure 4: Instructions to All Persons of Japanese Ancestry, page 2.

Figure 5: U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 227

Figure 6: Assembly Center Organization U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 223

Figure 7: U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority. The Evacuated People: A Quantitative Description (Washington, Government Printing Office, 1946), p. 8.

Figure 8: U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Story of Human Conservation, p. 22

Figure 9: U.S. Department of the Interior, War Relocation Authority, Evacuated People, p. 17

Figure 10: Typical Plot Plan, War Relocation Center U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 266

Figure 11: Typical Housing Block, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 267

Figure 12: Typical Administration Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 268.

Figure 13: Typical Military Police Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 269

Figure 14: Typical Hospital Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 270

Figure 15: Typical Warehouse Group, War Relocation Center, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 271.

Figure 16: Table 32.—Summary of Transfers of Evacuees From Custody of the Army to Custody of War Relocation Authority U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 279

Figure 17: Transfers from Assembly to Relocation Centers, U.S. War Department, Final Report, p. 281

Figure 18: The Town of Manzanar, August 1910 Townsite Plot, Eastern California Museum

Figure 19: Table 37g — Age by Sex and Nativity, Manzanar, January 1, 1943

Map 1: Boundary Map, Manzanar War Relocation Area, August 27, 1942.

Map 2: Manzanar Farm and Irrigation Map, April 12, 1943.

Map 3: Manzanar Relocation Area, September 13, 1943.

Map 4: Other Investments, January 1945.

Map 5: Sanitary Sewer System, February 7, 1945.

Map 6: Electrical System and Fire Alarm Telephone, April 17, 1945.

Map 7: Camp Layout, April 20, 1945.

Map 8: Water Distribution System, May 6, 1945.

Map 9: Land Improvements, May 6, 1945.

Map 10: WRA Construction Plot Plan, March 14, 1946.