Mesa Verde Administrative History

A. A needed change

Not everything had gone well with the administration of Mesa Verde after the dismissal of Superintendent Randolph in 1911. Randolph and Shoemaker, his successor, demonstrated that they had no real appreciation of what a park should be. Rickner, while he did some good work with the limited amount of money he had, permitted many abuses in the park. Apparently Rickner practically turned over the park to Ranger Jeep, his son-in-law. Rickner probably had the best intentions of any superintendent prior to 1921, but it was not quite clear in his mind what the park required. [1]

In fairness to the early superintendents, however, it may be said that during the formative years of the park administrative machinery, very few persons really knew how the park should be developed. It is a very well-known fact that before the National Park Service was established in 1916, there was no central administrative machinery for the management of national parks, and the supervisory offices in Washington only gave the parks and monuments incidental attention. Several years after its establishment, the National Park Service followed a period of experimentation with ideas and concepts in park management.

A series of damaging complaints about the park administration forced Director Mather to take a closer look at Mesa Verde affairs. Probably it was Mr. D. W. Roper, a visitor from New York, who first warned Mather about nepotism and political influence in the administration of the park. "Perhaps you know," he wrote Mather in 1915,

that Mrs. Jeep who runs the camp is the daughter of Mr. Rickner, the Superintendent of the park, and that the latter freely admits securing his position through political influence. The position is what is ordinarily called a political plum. However, Mrs. Jeep was entirely satisfactory to all of our party in her administration of the camp and the table. Mr. Jeep is a very competent and enthusiastic guide. He is able to stand an unlimited amount of tramping and climbing, and does not urge the visitors or even encourage them to go into dangerous places. When we approached a place of this kind, we were always advised of what we could expect and were asked to decide for ourselves whether or not we would go into the particular cliff dwellings. [2]

Horace M. Albright, Field Assistant to Director Mather, visited Mesa Verde in the fall of 1917 and found that the park was being administered in very crude and unsatisfactory manner.

I found that the administration and protection of the park, as well as its operation as a tourist resort was very much of a family affair. I saw, however, that Mrs. Jeep was probably the only person who could be interested at that time in the operation of a tourist camp. Her husband impressed me as being a capable man, and interested in the park. At that time, Dr. Fewkes thought he was a man we ought to develop and keep in the Service. This is the way that Jeep impressed me. It seems, however, that the young man has failed to develop in the right direction, and that he now has about the same attitude toward the park that his father-in-law, the Superintendent, has. Also, it appears that Jeep has been doing some excavating on his own account and has sold relics as opportunity offered.

I felt also, after my visit to the park, that the transportation business was not being handled right, and the records of the Service will show that I tried to interest outside parties in the establishment of a regular transportation line. The small patronage that the park enjoyed, however, made the proposition unattractive to investors. I think the condition still exists. There are not enough people visiting the park to make it a profitable venture for anybody to spend any large sum of money in improving hotel-camp and transportation facilities. [3]

Mr. Jean Allard Jeancon, another influential visitor who stayed at Spruce Tree Camp for over four months in 1920, saw many abuses in the park. According to him, people from Mancos and Cortéz entered the park at all times without going through the procedure of reporting themselves or paying any attention to the rules governing the park. It was the customary thing to make Sunday a day of revelry in the park, with young people crawling over the walls of the repaired buildings, and willfully destroying such portions as had deteriorated and were frail. They also scratched and wrote their names everywhere. Dr. Fewkes and the visitor in question often remonstrated with these young people about swinging on the beams and walking on the weakened portions of the buildings, thereby jeopardizing the safety of the whole structure.

While he could not substantiate a definite charge against the Superintendent that he permitted unauthorized people to excavate, he knew of one or two cases, he said,

when I stood in the waiting room in the hotel and saw visitors enter with their arms filled with pottery and skeletal materials, which probably were turned over to Mr. Jeep, how he disposed of them later I do not know, but I have heard rumors that they were sent out of the park to the individuals who collected them. However, the fact remains that these individuals had no right to gather anything of that kind.

In the matter of campgrounds, Mr. Rickner's daughter, having the concession for the hotel, Rickner deemed it wise to move the campgrounds something over a mile from any water. There was no wood right at the camp and no place for the disposition of rubbish or trash of any kind. Toilet facilities were totally inadequate, and when the camper came to the mesa it was difficult for him to secure the services of a guide, and he was permitted to wander at random. There was no attempt made to take care of the tourists who did not stop at the hotel. In justice to Mrs. Jeep, I wish to say that I feel confident that she was not an active party in discriminating against auto tourists who catnaped. [4]

On September 23, 1920, the Denver Commercial published a letter written by Dr. Frank L. Bartlett, Chairman of the Roads and Traffic Committee of the Denver Civic and Commercial Association. In very strong terms, Bartlett criticized the whole park operation, especially the lack of protection for the ruins and inadequate visitor's services and facilities. He did not blame the superintendent entirely for the conditions of the park, and felt that the State of Colorado and Congress had neglected Mesa Verde. In the editorial page of the Rocky Mountain News, also of Denver, the accusation was made that Rocky Mountain National Park had received part of what was due to it, but Mesa Verde was forgotten. [5]

In response to his complaint, Mather wrote Bartlett that the development of Mesa Verde National Park was definitely being studied. [6]

Rickner's successor had already been tentatively selected when Mather wrote the following confidential letter to Roger W. Toll of Denver, former Superintendent of Mount Rainier National Park, who visited Mesa Verde with the Director in the fall of 1920:

It seems that we will have to make a change in that park primarily because the present incumbent was a political appointee years ago; In the second place such a change is welcome to me, because I have long felt that we should have a man who is not only a good administrator, but also an archealogist. However, we want to be sure that the man we get to replace Mr. Rickner is the proper calibre.

He thought that the man who combined all those qualifications and who was highly recommended was Jesse Nusbaum. Senators Phipps and Nicholson, however, had been approached already on behalf of the appointment of three aspirants from Colorado, probably political candidates. [7]

There were more than three applicants to replace Rickner. One was from Mancos. The people of this town felt that since the park headquarters was located there, a local man should have preference. This man was Jos. H. Jackson, a successful businessman, favorable to the railroad interests. Other candidates were a store owner, a preacher-farmer, and a wholesale lumber dealer. [8]

Director Mather needed a new man for Mesa Verde in 1921, and on the recommendation of Arno B. Cammerer, Assistant Director of the National Park Service, the Director chose Nusbaum. Cammerer had met Nusbaum through Neil Judd of the Smithsonian Institution. Nusbaum was finally selected after a stormy hearing at the office of the Senior Colorado Senator. Mather, "very nervous and distraught," made it clear that he intended to administer the parks through qualified superintendents and not through political appointees. [9]

In his annual report of 1921, the Director announced that the Mesa Verde National Park was entering an era of promising development. On May 23, he wrote,

Mr. Jesse Nusbaum, of Colorado, a young archaeologist of experience and reputation for successful work in the Southwest, was appointed to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Mr. Thomas Rickner, of Mancos, who had served as superintendent during the past seven years. In considering the requirements for a successor it was felt that the peculiar nature of the historical exhibits in this region and the necessity for their protection and restoration along approved scientific lines precluded consideration of anyone but a trained archaeologist. [10]

B. Physical developments

1. Buildings program

Nusbaum's first move when he arrived in Mesa Verde National Park in June 1921, was to break away from the practice of previous superintendents of residing and having the park headquarters at Mancos. His new headquarters were located at Spruce Tree Camp, on the west rim of Spruce Canyon, and overlooking Spruce Tree House. It was a decidedly advantageous position both for administration and to serve the visiting public. Since the creation of the park in 1906, no superintendent had made his home in the park, neither had rangers ever spent a winter there, and nothing was ever accomplished in the park during the winter months. Since the only government building suitable for residence on the mesa was occupied by the ranger and his family, Nusbaum lived in a tent until a residence was built. His first office was a "paper letter file out under the shade of a piñon" until he got a tent for temporary quarters. [1]

No real permanent physical developments had been accomplished in the park to provide visitor services and facilities. Just by looking at the unholy mess of temporary developments jammed within a small area overlooking Spruce Tree House, Nusbaum realized that with the complex problems of operating the park came the demand for functional arrangement of buildings to provide for administrative and industrial needs. A group plan, not necessarily formal in character, must be worked out for the park. Most important, however; was the laying out of a well-designed general scheme along which all buildings and facilities of a permanent character should be constructed.

Without wasting time, Nusbaum developed plans for a suitable administrative center at Spruce Tree Camp, with the superintendent's residence as the first building to be built at the park headquarters. The site selected for the residence was the bench of a small rocky ledge directly south, about 200 feet from the line of the log-cabin museum, and just large enough to accommodate the planned house. It overlooked part of Spruce Tree ruins from one side—east—and Spruce Tree Canyon and Navajo Canyon from the south. Suggested by Dr. Fewkes, this site was not large enough for museum purposes and not suitable for administrative uses because of its relation to road connections, but it afforded privacy for a house and at the same time was near the main camp developments. As tentative arrangement, with regard to future buildings, a new museum would face Spruce Tree ruins, and be placed just north of the log cabin, on the same line; the park administrative headquarters would occupy the space just south between the museum and the superintendent's house.

In practically all details of construction, the design of the superintendent's house followed that of the older houses of the Hopi Indians, the presumable descendants of the cliff dwellers who had inhabited the region of Mesa Verde. The materials to be used were largely available within the immediate vicinity of the camp. This type of architecture was selected because it was well suited to the environment of the park and all new construction would preserve and enhance the uniqueness of the park by preserving the atmosphere that it naturally created. By adhering to this type the final ensemble would be harmonious and attractive. By contrast, the existing buildings of the camp, ranging from a log cabin to a New England farmhouse, were not suitable, as they did not maintain the proper atmosphere. [2]

Begun during the later part of the 1921 travel season, the new residence was put under roof before snow fell, and was completed for habitation throughout the winter by the superintendent and his family. As it required three days by pack and saddle horses to make the round trip for mail and perishable supplies between headquarters and Mancos, winter administration of the park area involved some hardships. The furniture of the house, following the old style and method of construction introduced by the early Franciscan fathers, was built during the winter months; the construction of the house and furnishings was under Superintendent Nusbaum's supervision, and the work, in which he did the lion's share, resulted in something worthy of approval. In fact, the residence and the handmade furniture, all designed to fit into the park atmosphere, proved such objects of attraction to the visitors that means had to be taken to arrange for special hours of inspection, as otherwise the superintendent would have been forced to give up living in the house.

Furthermore, a complete and interesting plan for future development of an administrative group at Spruce Tree Camp was worked out by Mr. and Mrs. Nusbaum during the winter and later approved by the Assistant Landscape Engineer after studies on the ground. This group included among various facilities, a new administrative building and checking station, a new museum, comfort station, and a plan for the physical development of accommodation facilities. [3]

Park headquarters at Spruce Tree Camp consisted in 1921 of a three-room frame ranger station, a log ranger station used as museum and restroom, a small water tank building, an automobile shed, an ice house, a frame shed for the light plant and seven farm-type toilets. [4]

All the physical improvements of the headquarters area were carried on during a ten-year period. The Landscape Engineering Division approved the plan of development and each year, as funds were available, and there was an excess of water over the needs of the camp and park visitors, one or two units were completed. Gradually Spruce Tree Camp assumed the form and appearance of the plans and sketches that Mr. and Mrs. Nusbaum had prepared during the winter of 1921. The layout was unique: the buildings in form and treatment followed an adaptation of the early modern Pueblo Indian style; the interior furnishings were in conformity with the earliest type of furnishings used in the Southwest, and were made for the most part by the park personnel from native materials at a minimum of cost to the government during spare time in the closed season.

It would be tedious to cover in detail the numerous buildings constructed during the ten-year period. There were, however, five developed areas, with the following structures at Spruce Tree Camp:

I. Administrative Group administrative building, community building on the site of the old log cabin museum, hospital.

II. Residential Group ranger's club, 8 employee residences, 4 Navajo hogans.

III. Utility area bunkhouse, mess hail, carpenter shop, ice house, stable and corral, storage shed, machine shop and garage, warehouse.

IV. Tourist facilities main lodge building, cabin tenthouses, public toilet, bath house.

V. Auto camp area 2 frame comfort stations, one-room log cabin used as community building by campers.

2. Accommodations

Spruce Tree Lodge, the only hostelry in the park, was located on the west rim of Spruce Tree Canyon, overlooking the ruin from which the canyon took its name. This lodge consisted in 1921 of a permanent building containing the dining and service rooms, rows of floored tents on terraces looking into the canyon, nicely furnished for bedrooms, two rustic cottages also furnished for bedrooms, and a bathhouse. An electric plant in the rear furnished light for the entire camp. [4]

The increase in tourist travel was accompanied by serious problems in sanitation. This may be more readily realized when it is understood that the largest increase in visitors was among those who came in their own cars and camped out in the open. Sanitary arrangements, particularly in regard to toilets, public and private, were distressingly bad. No attempt had been made to camouflage toilets in any way. They were so placed that there was not the least suggestion of privacy; they were not well kept, painted or screened, and were inadequate in size. Public toilets for men and women were very close together. From the dining room of the lodge, people could be seen entering and leaving the toilet to the rear of the hotel, and at times the door was only partially closed. Lady visitors made many unfavorable comments about the toilet arrangements. Men were easily satisfied, but women were most exacting in such matters, and the existing country-type outhouse, with constant digging of new holes, moving of houses, etc. was neither pleasant nor efficient.

Since there was not sufficient water or funds for a sanitary water-carriage sewer system, Nusbaum proposed to construct a sanitary privy system as would meet the conditions required by the United States Public Health Service. In this manner the privies would be separated and camouflaged so that "one does not have to look ashamed when entering, and hold one's nose within." [5]

One of the most effective improvements resulted when the old campground, situated a mile from the nearest source of water, and without toilets or conveniences of any kind whatever, was permanently abandoned. It was relocated with water lines and toilets on the rim of Spruce Tree Canyon, about 500 feet from park headquarters. The new location was also susceptible to more effective administrative oversight. When fully developed this new site would easily accommodate as many as 100 cars and occupants. The popularity of the new location with its wonderful views was fully attested by the increasingly large number of visitors that were attracted to it. By 1923 sixty percent of the visitors were using the campground facilities. [6]

As visitation increased, the hotel needed expansion. Its capacity, particularly that of the dining facilities, was totally inadequate. Visitors had to eat in shifts at times. Early in 1923 the Spruce Tree Camp hotel, together with all its tents, cottages, service buildings, etc. was moved to a new location overlooking Spruce Tree and Navajo Canyons. Accommodations for the public could not be enlarged on the old site, and with the increased travel such enlargement and improvement was needed. Roads were constructed to the new location, and in laying out these roads additional space was added to the public campground facilities, which were maintained in a most satisfactory manner. In the new hotel, a fireplace was built in the lobby,

the building painted, and kalsomined, and much new equipment added, including fifty new chairs in the dining room. For the first time in the history of the park, good accommodations are provided for the public. Six new tents with flies were erected on the Spruce Canyon side of the concession. A caustic treatment toilet building was erected which is a very decided improvement over the old pit type of toilet. [7]

In 1924 Mrs. Oddie Jeep, concessioner of the Spruce Tree Camp, added four new cottages, two with fireplaces. Two of the cottages replaced two tents which could not withstand the heavy winds from the canyon preceeding storms. Three tents, floored and with flies, were also added. An Indian type of pergola was built across the front of the hotel. This was thickly covered with brush and formed a shaded area across the whole front of the building. Two rustic benches were placed under this, and vines and "hollyhocks" planted about the hotel. Rustic cedar flower boxes were placed under the hotel windows. This all added greatly to the appearance of the hotel building. Many minor improvements were inaugurated for the comfort of the visitors and for the betterment of the service to the public. Suggestions of Mrs. Nusbaum were followed in the interior decorations of the new cottages with most pleasing results. [8]

Because of the potential increase of visitor use, the extension of the public campgrounds became necessary in 1926; the erection of a chemical-type comfort station in the lower section of the area replacing the old farmhouse types greatly added to the attractiveness of the site. The area was kept scrupulously clean at all times, a fact much noted by visitors. Additional rustic cedar fences, transplanted native flowers and shrubbery, and rustic benches, added to the charm of Spruce Tree Camp. The necessary enlargement of the public campgrounds was completed ahead of the demand by extending roadways and campsites northward along the rim of Spruce Tree Canyon.

Service to the public by the various operators was satisfactory in every way, but yearly the demand for a first-class hotel became stronger and more emphatic, and the increasing volume of traffic would soon warrant the investment. Visitors at first were happy to obtain a floored tent. Later the 24 cottages were always taken in preference to floored tents, and the requests for rooms with bath became more incessant. The Spruce Tree Camp Lodge operator increased sleeping accommodations in 1926 by erecting 14 comfortable cottage-type buildings [9] and 6 floored tents, installed electric refrigeration and other service improvements, but still the dining room and kitchen facilities were not large enough. [10]

Potable water was available only at headquarters and because of this fact only one public campground was maintained. Approximately 60% of all visitors made their temporary home there while in the park. Water was piped to convenient outlets, firewood for the convenience of guests regularly distributed, and sanitary facilities consisting of chemical toilets provided. A large log community house proved to be an added asset. All buildings within the area were electrically lighted. One ranger was assigned to patrol duty in the campground, which was maintained in scrupulous order at all times. Much favorable comment had been voiced by visitors on the appearance, cleanliness, and privacy of these it was contemplated, with the moving of the hotel, to also move the campground so that the one development for the accommodation of visitors would be centrally located. Furthermore, at its location on the rim of Spruce Canyon, space for development was too restricted, and with increasing visitation a larger and unrestricted area would be required. [11]

Licensed operators in the park kept improving their services to visitors by additions to facilities and better general supervision of details, all of which resulted in more satisfactory service to those using the public utilities provided.

But there was still an insistent demand for a modern hotel, conforming in architectural type to the new extended park headquarters buildings. Since early 1929 the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railway Company had been considering such a plan, and in the course of this period had inspected possible sites for such an operation conferred with Mrs. Jeep as to sale of existing utilities, and made formal application for a franchise to cover contemplated operations. The railroad company also proposed to take over the transportation franchise of the Mesa Verde Transportation Company operating from Mancos to the park, and the inauguration of one-day motor cruises of the Harvey-Car pattern from Montrose, Colorado, to Mesa Verde. [12]

On December 31, 1929, the contract of Mrs. Oddie L. Carr, public utility operator, terminated. The hotel, with its equipment and supplies, was purchased by the Mesa Verde Park Company, a subsidiary of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railway. There was still an insistent demand by park visitors for a modern hotel conforming in architecture to the new park headquarters buildings. It was tentatively agreed by the Park Service and the public utility operator to build a hotel when water had been gained in sufficient quantities to permit the construction and to insure to guests all modern conveniences. If, after the drilling of a well, enough water was obtained, the hotel would probably move to a new site which had already been chosen by the Director and other officials of the Park Service.

Also transferred to the Mesa Verde Park Company was the stage line operating between Mancos and the park. [13]

Through 1931 the plans for expansion of facilities in Mesa Verde were held in abeyance pending the outcome of the Park Service plans to develop an adequate source of water supply. Once assured of an ample supply of water, the Mesa Verde Park Company would be prepared to install new and much needed improvements. A new lodge with central structure and cabin units, all to conform to the pueblo architecture, were on this development program. [14]

3. Aileen Nusbaum Hospital

Of the buildings in the administrative group, the hospital was a congressional recognition of the efforts of Mrs. Nusbaum. When Mr. Nusbaum assumed his duties as superintendent in 1921, nothing had been accomplished toward housing or caring for sick or injured employees or guests. As the development of the park proceeded, a small community of workmen and employees sprang up at Spruce Tree Camp. More and more visitors came to the park. It was inevitable that accidents and sickness should increase and in every emergency it was the superintendent's wife who responded to the call for first aid treatment and nursing. She had been a nurse in the American Hospital in France during World War I and her experience well fitted her for the Red Cross role she was called upon to fulfill.

Mrs. Nusbaum immediately realized the needs of the park and during the summer of 1922 a large tent was purchased with two small donations by visitors; some medicines and a small ward were installed. In 1923 Mr. Nusbaum included in his annual appropriations request an extra ranger that would be a medical student of third or fourth year standing who could act as park doctor in emergencies and accident cases. This system of a tent and student doctor was satisfactory for a few years but as the park grew and both visitors and personnel increased, this small operation was no longer able to handle the demands made upon it.

In 1925 a congressional party visited Mesa Verde, headed by Congressman Crampton of Michigan. In line with their regular inspection of the park they saw the hospital tent and equipment and learned of the excellent work that Mrs. Nusbaum had accomplished in building up the small unit and by personally assisting the doctor in nursing and administering of anesthesia, and the like. Mrs. Nusbaum explained to the Congressmen her plans and ideas for an adequate hospital to be constructed of native sandstone rock, of the same type of architecture as the administrative headquarters, and of her own design.

In 1925 the Interior Department appropriation act passed by Congress contained an item of $7,500 for the construction and equipment of the "Aileen Nusbaum Hospital." During the summer of 1926 the hospital was constructed. The demand for the hospital may be appreciated when it is realized that during the five months' travel season of 1929 about 300 patients were treated, the majority of cases consisting of sprains, cuts, and minor injuries.

In 1930 the hospital equipment consisted of three wards of two beds each, one ward devoted to female cases, white; another to male, white; and the third ward to Navajo Indians. The operating room was complete with necessary equipment, including sterilizers, tables, and the like. Adjoining the operating room there was an accident room, to care for cases of minor character. Adjoining the accident room there was a medicine room and next to this the doctor's office.

The hospital was operated solely by the government and all employees of both the Park Service and the concessioners obtained free service by contributing a small sum each month toward its maintenance and upkeep. The patients were about equally divided between employees and visitors, but it was not the park intention to use the hospital for other than emergency cases. [15]

C. Roads and Trails

1. Road planning

Early in the season of 1921 Chief Civil Engineer George E. Goodwin and his assistant, Col. W. W. Crosby, spent time in Mesa Verde studying road conditions and making surveys of badly needed improvements and new road locations. This resulted in the preparation of estimates for improving the north entrance road into the park and for reconstruction of the abandoned road under the so-called Knife Edge. Examinations and preliminary surveys were also made for several cut-off roads along the west side of the mesa, and for grade and alignment changes in the existing road.

As in previous years, excessive rains during the travel season caused heavy washing of the roads, making it impossible for cars to enter the park for days. Constant dragging and repairs were necessary to keep the roads in good condition.

Attention given to the trails was necessarily limited to keeping the most important of them, from the main roads down over the cliffs to the chief ruins, in good repair. Improvements were made on these at difficult places, and signs posted for the guidance of the visitors. Several new trails were urgently needed, particularly for patrolling purposes along the park boundaries for the protection of ruins and wildlife.

Roads leading to the ruins needed great improvement. They were too narrow and winding for the safety of automobiles. Nusbaum suggested that the protection of the ruins could be greatly simplified if a circle road were constructed leading to all the main ruins without the necessity of continually returning to within a mile to a mile and a half of Spruce Tree House each time to start for a new ruin. As routed, the main road led to Square Tower House, then nearly east across Chapin Mesa to Sun Point, thence back, heading Fewkes Canyon, to Sun Temple, up Sun Temple Road, heading Cliff Canyon, and down past "Buried House" to Cliff Palace, to Balcony House and then returning along the old road to Spruce Tree Camp. These roads made necessary a 15-mile trip for visiting those points.

A circled trip, as suggested by the superintendent, did not entail over two and a half miles of new road at the most, and cut the total distance travelled in seeing the same ruins by four miles at least. This system would do away with all the back tracking necessary on the existing roads beyond the junction of the Square Tower House and the Cliff Palace Road, with the exception of one-half mile returning to head Fewkes Canyon and one-half mile of Cliff Palace Road.

No time was wasted; the first road constructed was a shortcut road from just above Spruce Tree Camp, skirting the head of Spruce Tree Canyon, to the main road of the various ruins. The old road was closed off on the completion of the new one. Civil Engineer Goodwin, assisted by Col. Crosby, blazed the two new roads which the superintendent had proposed, between Square Tower and Sun Point Roads and Sun Point and Sun Temple Roads. When completed, these two new roads would save an additional four miles of travel in visiting the principal ruins. [1]

2. Knife Edge trails

Probably the greatest improvement in the park highways was the reconstruction during 1922-23 of the old abandoned Knife Edge entrance road. It eliminated five and one-half miles of uninteresting road used before and did away with 2,000 feet of adverse grade. A further section reconstructed on the east shortened the so-called new road to the crest of the mesa by two miles and eliminated many dangerous switchbacks and extreme grades. A serious problem was encountered in this road construction, due to the fact that all water used in the road-crew camps and for the steam shovel had to be hauled in by truck from Mancos, a distance of 10 miles.

As a scenic road, the Knife Edge provided a spectacular drive, it commanded tremendous expanses of diversified terrain in the four adjacent states of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico.

By the new construction of two short cut roads, a little over a mile in extent, four miles of back tracking was eliminated in visiting ruins about camp. All the other roads to the ruins were practically rebuilt, stumps removed from the roadbed, dangerous curves rectified, culverts installed, and so widened and graded that cars could pass one another with ease.

New trails were also built; one from Cliff Palace, across Cliff Canyon, to Sun Temple; one from Square Tower House to Casa Colorado and "Inaccessible House"; and a third from Square Tower House to Little Long Rouse. Most important of all was Rock Springs Trail from Spring House to Rock Springs and then to the wonderful ruins of Mug House, Jug House, Kodack House, Long House, "Double House," Ruin Sixteen, Step House, and Pinnacle Tower, including foot trails over the cliffs to the ruins. This long-awaited development opened up the greatest group of ruins on the park outside of the Chapin Mesa group and made it possible to patrol this almost inaccessible portion of the park. [2]

Mesa Verde had excellent dry weather roads, as far as surface was concerned because they were composed of admixtures of clay, red soil, soft disintegrated shale, and gumbo. Wet, they were very treacherous, and during long soaking rains became utterly impassable. Grades of up to 20 percent and switchbacks and hairpin turns needed correction and whole roads demanded widening and hard-surfacing to withstand the traffic imposed on them.

The roads from camp were all red soil and clay with the exception of a few short stretches where gypsum deposits were found. Dry and compacted, these materials made the finest dirt roads imaginable in dry weather, but the first dash of rain made them most treacherous. Chains on all four wheels were necessary for all but the experienced drivers who poked along in low and intermediate uphill and down and never proceeded over ten to twelve miles an hour under any conditions. If the rain was heavy or protracted., each car deepened the rut till the car rode so far down that the axle and pan scraped the roadbed. Brush and crushed sandstone was placed in the ruts to keep the pans from dragging and a grader was necessary since drags were useless for deep ruts.

There was not a level portion in the whole road system, and the average grade was about eight percent. There were portions in the roads of fifty miles that had gradients up to twenty percent, with many pitches of 15 to 17 percent. Much of the road was on the north rim of the mesa, where for considerable distances the cars passed around the north rim on a twelve to fifteen foot wide road, 1,500 to 2,250 feet above the valley, with not a vestige of a parapet to keep the cars from falling over the edge to the valley below. None of the roads were surfaced.

Particularly dangerous was the Knife Edge Road. A typical situation occurred during the travel season of 1924. Heavy dry desert winds and lack of binding moisture started an extensive movement which increased gradually in intensity until at one time one 1,000-foot section of the road, nearly 1,800 feet directly above the valley, was reduced to less than 9 feet in travel width, even after the ditch line was filled. Cribs of 60-foot logs, and hundreds of loads of scrub-oak brush in the leaf were necessary to stop this movement. Seventy-five percent of the total fund for the maintenance of all roads for the year was expended in checking the movement and widening the road for safe passage of park visitors, nearly all of which could have been saved by one good soaking rain at the opportune time. [3]

3. North Entrance Highway

Automobiles demanded better roads every year. A few years back, Fords constituted over 50 percent of the cars entering the park, all loaded to the limit with passengers, household furnishings lashed to the running boards, fenders and back. Powerful, speedy, heavy closed cars, with few passengers, predominated in the 1920s, and in muddy weather tore the clay, red-soil, gumbo and slippery shale roads all to pieces in an hour's time. Hard surfacing and widening of the roads were great necessities. [4]

In 1922 a new approach road was started up the east side of Point Lookout, to avoid and abandon the dangerous "Switchback Road." A two-way stretch of road from the park boundary to Windy Point, following very much the present road alignment at this section, was completed in 1925. This-section joined the west Point Lookout grade.

From 1922 to 1930 there were constant changes and improvements in the entrance road alignment. For instance, in 1925 the road was realigned through what is now "B-cut" to eliminate the long and difficult grades over Moccasin Mesa from the head of the Moccasin Canyon to the head of School Section Canyon. In 1926 the road was further realigned through what is now "D-cut" eliminating the adverse grades over the ridge between the east and west forks of Little Soda Canyon. [5]

In 1926 some progress was made in the reconstruction of the present East Point Lookout grade, but bad weather, line failure and constant maintenance prohibited its completion. This road was being built on a maximum of 6-1/4 percent gradient, which was a radical improvement over the narrow road ranging from 17 percent to a maximum of 26 percent in gradient. Graveling of this road would follow.

Roads leading from park headquarters to the ruins were somewhat widened, cuts and fills made to care for faulty drainage, trees carefully trimmed for better vision ahead, and at Square Tower House a new loop road was constructed to accommodate the ever-increasing traffic and provide additional parking space. The Sun Temple road was likewise improved. Road work was done by force account, the park road crews being composed for the most part of Navajo Indians from the reservation just to the south. [6]

A survey of the north entrance highway from the park boundary to Spruce Tree Camp—18 miles in length—was made by the Bureau of Public Roads in 1927. The road program contemplated a more direct entrance road without sacrificing scenic advantages, the elimination of dangerous curves and gradients, and the gravel surfacing of the whole route. [7] This survey of the north entrance highway was made under the agreement of the National Park Service and the Bureau of Public Roads for the improvement of roads in the national parks. More specifically, the Bureau surveyed the present Prater Canyon grade from the west end of Knife Edge to the head of Moccasin Canyon. Construction of this portion of road, to join onto the B-cut section, was completed in 1929.

Except for a final contract, the new north entrance highway was located, insofar as it was practicable, to obliterate the old roadway. At some points modern high standards demanded an absolutely new location, thus leaving the scar of the old abandoned road section in evidence. An allotment was made available just for landscape work.

When completed in 1931, the entire north entrance highway had been reconstructed so far as realignment and subgrade was concerned. Graveling was completed also at the end of 1931. In Mesa Verde, with long months of drought and severe windstorms, usually followed by periods of excessive precipitation, roads had to be treated well. For this reason the gravel used was a course of large, crushed material intended only for a base, and this foundation would be treated with oil later. [8]

A small road improvement that brought favorable comment from park visitors was a newly-completed short scenic road leading from the main entrance highway to the highest point of Point Lookout. From the terminus of the short road, an unexcelled view of the Mesa Verde region and the surrounding country was revealed. On a visit to the park in 1930, Director Albright and Thomas Vint Landscape Architect, had enthusiastically endorsed the plans for the construction of this road. [9]

Travelers to Mesa Verde no longer suffered the discomfort and hardships of the earlier years. In 1930 the park had 40 miles of unsurfaced but excellently maintained highways, 50 miles of improved pioneer and Indian trails, and 24 miles of telephone line. [10]

D. Water development

1. A desperate need

An adequate water-supply system was among the park's greatest needs. Months without enough rain during the travel season of 1920 to cause enough water to flow into the reservoir above the seep of Spruce Tree Canyon, made the water question a serious one. Every use of water was curtailed or shut off pending rain. Just when water was scarcest, pumping from the cistern three times a day was necessary to keep going. All work was halted at this time on physical developments for fear of loosing the little water that was gained. An additional cistern in the canyon head was dug out and enlarged and new water lines and a storage tank five times the size of the old one were installed. Water from the cistern was pumped to the tank above the camp and distributed by gravity. Farther studies for increased water supply were continuing, for travel to the park would be limited to the number of visitors who could be supplied with water at any given time. [1]

Again, in 1923, the lack of an adequate and unfailing source of water nearly resulted in the closing of the park at the beginning of the rush season. Construction work was stopped in an effort to supply the needs of visitors. A spring drought made the situation desperate.

The discovery of nearly two hundred ancient cliff dweller dams for the storage of flood waters in a small spur canyon just below Cedar Tree Tower, and within a mile from Spruce Tree, indicated the one successful method that the park could follow in gaining water for the camp. Up to forty feet in length and to five feet in height, the great number of these dams showed that the quest for water in centuries past was just as serious a problem as at the park in 1923. Two quick showers furnished enough water to commence the construction of two modern masonry dams on the rim rock at the head of Spruce Tree Canyon. One and a half miles of drainage ditches were constructed to convey flood waters to the reservoirs. Two cloudbursts in August filled all three reservoirs. One new storage cistern of 4,500 gallons capacity was also constructed in the head of the canyon. A 6,000-gallon storage and distributing tank was erected above headquarters in a masonry tower of the "cliff dweller watch tower type," and larger supply and distribution water lines run to various parts of the hotel and campgrounds. Additional reservoirs were planned to saturate the sandstone farther back from the seam where the water was regained after a purifying process of percolation through some 200 feet of sandstone. Still, it was felt that an emergency concrete storage tank of at least 100,000 gallons capacity was needed above headquarters to carry the park through protracted periods of drought. This storage tank could be filled in early spring when water was plentiful.

Some excellent dams were also found on the west side of the park and a great many more on small spur canyons in various parts of Chapin Mesa. [2]

Once again, in 1924, the lack of an adequate water supply had all but closed the park. Heroic work on the part of the park forces, and the realization of the desperate situation by visitors and operators, alone made it possible to keep the park open during the season. Despite the fact that funds as requested were provided for the development of additional water, development had not kept pace with increased attendance. It was an extremely desperate situation, wrote the superintendent.

Many nights during August there was less than 2 gallons of water available per visitor and employee for the following 24-hour period. Stock was watered as far as 8 miles from camp, the hotel bathhouse closed in early June, construction work entailing use of water stopped July 1, and water for laundry purposes was not available for protracted periods after June 30. Large signs were placed at each public outlet, personal appeals signed by me were posted over the camp, and during very critical periods, I personally appealed to visitors at the evening camp fire to help us keep the park open by using water most sparingly. Dams constructed this season increase the flood waters impounded by tenfold. The upper cistern now holds seven times the volume of water. A new pumping plant has been installed to replace the worn-out one.

Appropriations for water development have not been sufficient to keep ahead of the increase in attendance, and sufficient water for the conservative uses of visitors and park employees must be developed if Mesa Verde is to continue as a national park. August visitors alone amounted to over 50 per cent of the total registration during the past season, and each year the percentage of increase grows. [3]

There was no possibility of obtaining water by drilling wells, and it was not feasible to bring the water from other parts of the mesa even if it were available.

Water from the Morfield Canyon well was not fit for human consumption, and stock, other than cattle, would not drink it unless starved to that point where anything wet was drinkable. It was highly impregnated with gypsum and very bitter. There were three wells in Prater Canyon, on private holdings; one had strongly alkaline water, and in the other two, water was not permanent. In the two wells of School Section Canyon the water was not fit to drink. There was a seep in Moccasin Canyon about one-fourth mile from the head from which one could get the best potable water on the park outside of Spruce Tree Camp but only in the early spring. Water of the Little Soda Canyon well was very alkaline and bitter. A new well in the east fork of Navajo Canyon, constructed by the cattlemen, contained alkaline water, and was not permanent.

The total flow from all these wells could supply the park needs in part, but the cost of laying approximately 16 miles of pipeline and other equipment would be a great expense. Superintendent Nusbaum, who studied the water problem from every possible source, saw only one ultimate solution. He proposed a future supply of water by gravity line from the mountains above Mancos to the park, distance of about 30 miles, at an approximate construction cost of $300,000. [4]

2. Catchment areas

In spite of building a 63,000-gallon steel tank and a 20,000-gallon underground cistern to impound rain and snow water from the roofs of the industrial buildings, the water situation continued to be desperate in 1925. This year extremely bad weather in the latter part of August and early in September made roads so trying that very few visitors entered the park during this time, thus preventing the closing of the park for lack of potable water.

Sometime in August, the Subcommittee on Interior Department Appropriations of the House Appropriations Committee together with the Interior Department representative of the Bureau of the Budget, spent three days in the park getting first-hand information. As a result of their investigation of the water situation, they wired the United States Geological Survey to send their best man in the water resources division to make a ground-water survey of the area and submit a report to Chairman Cramton of the committee as to the best method of obtaining an adequate water supply.

O. E. Meinzer completed the water survey early in September. In his field work careful consideration was given to three alternative solutions:

1 - drilling, digging, or tunnelling for underground water,

2 - laying a long pipeline to bring in water from a distance,

3 - constructing rain catches and reservoirs to store the rain and snow water.

Meinzer reached the following conclusions:

1 - projects for developing underground water were uncertain as to quantity and quality, or both;

2 - a 30-mile pipeline carrying water from Crystal Creek, in the La Plata Mountains, would furnish a very satisfactory supply, but would cost too much in proportion to the small community that it was to serve;

3 - catching rain and snow water on specially prepared surface and storing it in underground reservoirs that would feed by gravity into the existing waterworks appeared to be a feasible means of providing a permanent supply of water at a reasonable cost. [5]

Completed in the late fall of 1926, the new system of obtaining additional water for Spruce Tree Camp, as recommended by Meinzer, consisted of one acre of galvanized corrugated roofing, so set in a low framework as to gather all the precipitation fallen on it; the water then passed through a rapid sand filter to two steel tanks holding 125,000 gallons each. The catchment area and tanks were located one-half mile above headquarters, and would supply approximately 400,000 gallons of pure rain water per year, with the average annual precipitation of 18.36 inches falling at this point. Whether the quality of the water impounded for six months to a year in steel tanks would be satisfactory for human consumption was an undetermined question. [6]

For the first time in many years the park escaped a water shortage during the 1927 travel season due to the construction of the catchment system. [7] Even this supply, however, was insufficient to care for the growing needs of the park and it was necessary to install a second one-acre catchment unit with a rapid sand filter; this was placed in service for the first time in early January of 1929, although protective fencing and final completion was not had until well into June. In connection with this unit a reinforced concrete storage tank of 250,000-gallon capacity was built, as it was found that water standing in the steel tanks with the coming of warm weather acquired a slight taste from preservative paint used on the inside. Investigation showed that in nearly all catchment systems in which the water was stored for a considerable length of time, concrete tanks were used since they imparted no taint or odor to water.

Even the water in the concrete tanks acquired a slight taste due to the fact that pollen from the piñon trees was blown into the catchment. To obviate this difficulty with the drinking water another smaller concrete tank, with a capacity of 75,000 gallons, was installed underground; water was pumped to it from the spring at the head of Spruce Tree Canyon after filtering through 250 feet of sandstone. So, two types of water were now available in the major portion of the camp area—the soft rain and snow water for general purposes and the fresher and more potable old system water, for culinary and drinking purposes. The plan was to add another catchment when the travel figure passed the 20,000 or 25,000 mark. [8]

3. Well drilling

But the water problem was far from being solved, and so was reported by the Superintendent in 1929:

Even with excessive snowfall during the winter period, the gain from the two catchment areas with spring melting was comparatively light. Early this spring very heavy, drying winds coming from the Navajo Reservation evidently evaporated much of the water content from the snow, the evaporation progressing at greater speed than the melting process, thereby removing from catchment areas more than half of the water content that the Weather Bureau records would indicate was conserved there. At the end of June the total available water supply in storage was less than 104,000 gallons.

Beginning June 9 and continuing to the period of September 10, 9.48 inches of rainfall was recorded at park headquarters, thereby insuring far more than an ample supply for this travel year. During the same period all available water was pumped to the lower reinforced concrete tank for storage of water from the older system. On September 10, 450,000 gallons of water of the two types were in storage, each of which is supplied separately to the main outlets within the headquarters area, thus providing an absolutely soft, general purpose water from the catchment units, and a fine, potable water from the old system, less flat, for culinary and drinking purposes. Much time has been devoted during the past season in study of future water development here to care for the greater needs of the immediate future when a greater and more modern camp development will require considerable greater volume of water for operation of modern conveniences and the sewage disposal system. Estimates and justifications for the 1931 fiscal year are in support of a deep drilling test water well as a means of caring for future requirements, based on the success of the Shiprock water well and wildcat drilling in areas adjacent to the park in which water was encountered.

Both Nusbaum and Meinzer believed that the final solution of the water problem was a costly gravity line, but that in the meantime, experiments should be made with drilling a well. [9]

The site chosen for the well was selected after a careful study by Superintendent Nusbaum, members of the Geological Survey, and officials of oil companies operating in the surrounding territory. It became necessary to go to the north side of a great volcanic dike that had projected through the Mesa Verde sandstone at a distance about a mile north of Spruce Tree Camp. The site selected for the well insured gravity flow to existing storage facilities, and thence to the administrative, industrial, and hotel areas. In connection with the water problem, Nusbaum wrote:

It is interesting to note here that archeological investigations tell us that for the past 3,000 years a desperate struggle for water has been waged by the inhabitants of this region. The Cliff Dwellers, at a time about 1276 A. D., were undoubtedly forced from the Mesa Verde because of a long period of drought, and evidence remains to-day of the innumerable dams which they constructed for impounding the rainfall. If man, with his increased knowledge and mechanical appliances, can produce water from the deep strata of Mesa Verde, it will bring to an end this struggle of many centuries. [10]

Actual drilling of the deep test well was begun on December 22 under the direction of L. E. Teague, Contractor, and Park Service officials. The experiment was an essential step in the development of the park, since if it resulted in striking sands bearing good water, major developments in hotel and other accommodations would follow. With the appropriation ($38,000) available, it was expected to drill to a depth of 3,700 feet. [11]

E. Archeological investigations

1. Policy statement

In his annual report of 1922 Superintendent Nusbaum noted that the cumulative damage of the excavated ruins done by the heavy mountain boots of thousands of visitors needed immediate attention. Seeping water and surface run-off had added to the damage and many exposed walls had to be protected if they were to stand. Careless tourists, although watched by rangers and guides, added to the yearly destruction. He thought that funds allotted for archeological work for the next fiscal year should be used entirely in repairing that damage before it was too late. "Unexcavated ruins last indefinitely," he said, "but excavated ruins cannot."

From $1,500 to $3,000 had been set aside nearly every year for archeological work. This covered the excavation and repair of the main ruins then visited by the tourists, and each year, the park had tried to have a sufficient amount left for the scientific excavation and repair of another ruin. In this way, interest in the park and its past inhabitants had been kept alive. This work had been done for the most part under the direction of Dr. Fewkes who was also allotted from the Bureau of American Ethnology some funds to supplement the work which the park would not accomplish.

Fewkes contributed a very good deal to the popularity of the park through his many seasons of archeological work, lectures, campfire talks, numerous publications and the publicity that was, given out to the press. However, because his work was excavation, he was not interested in repair work after a ruin had been excavated or open to the public; once a ruin was excavated, maintenance was supposed to be the responsibility of the park administration. According to Nusbaum, because of the nature of his assignment, Fewkes was involved in many park activities which had nothing to do with archeology; he had the last word about many things connected with park management. To accomplish his program, he built several roads and trails, left many ruins partially excavated and unprotected from the elements, gave poor supervision to the actual excavation and repair work, and gave little attention to the landscape features while clearing around an archeological site. As a result of Fewkes' program, all the ruins excavated by him, completely or partially, needed repairs immediately after 1922. [1]

In 1923 the Director announced that while Mesa Verde offered a fertile field for exploration for years to come, it was considered advisable to postpone new archeological work and confine all efforts and small funds to repair and protection of those ruins which had been previously uncovered, that were to some extent suffering from the ravages of the elements. This work would be performed under the supervision of Superintendent Nusbaum, a trained archeologist. [2]

One problem, however, was how to keep Fewkes out of Mesa Verde. In 1923 the Director kept him out by allotting all funds for archeological work to Nusbaum for repair work. In 1924 Fewkes had funds and was getting ready to undertake new excavations. In this connection, Acting Director Cammerer wrote:

"We've got to keep the doctor out of the Mesa Verde because he is impossible. He is approaching senility, and his petty meanness and professional jealousy creates an intolerable situation. I think we should speak to Dr. Walcott and ask him to forbid Dr. Fewkes going into the Mesa." [3]

Mather had two conferences with Dr. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian, but the latter said that the Director had to take up the matter with Dr. Fewkes himself. [4]

Finally, Dr. Walcott received the following letter from the First Assistant Secretary of the Interior:

The Director of the National Park Service advises me that, in his opinion, no further excavations and uncovering of ruins in Mesa Verde National Park should be had during the coming year, on the ground that the funds and energies of the Park Service available for that park should be devoted to repairing and protecting ruins now uncovered and accessible to the public.

If exploration under the direction of your institution of the nature described can for the time being, and so far as this park is concerned, be suspended, it will be appreciated by the Park Service. [5]

2. Discoveries

No excavations were attempted by Nusbaum immediately after 1922, since government funds were only available for the repair and protection of ruins previously excavated. All ruins were maintained in the best possible conditions with the limited, funds, but the increasing thousands who visited them yearly proportionally increased the cost of preservation.

New and important discoveries were made practically every year within the park without recourse to excavation, as the following examples will show.

In 1923 a fine, circular watch tower, still standing to a height of 24 feet, was discovered accidentally. It was built against the cliff in the unnamed ruin south and east of Spring House. Loopholes at various levels commanded the approach from every exposed quarter; its masonry was comparable to that of the finest of the noted Hovenweep National Monument Towers to the west. Very soon the tower crumbled because it was in the direct path of a waterfall over the cliff.

A fine series of pictographs were found in a spur of Navajo Canyon, not far from Spruce Tree Camp, and the point was named Pictograph Point.

Of all the finds of 1923 the most important was the great series of prehistoric dams, over 200, found in the late spring, and later made accessible to visitors by means of a foot trail. Found within a few miles of park headquarters, the greater proportion of them were located in the bottom, and in the contributory drainage of the small canyon just south of Cedar Tree Tower. They were of rough masonry construction, varying in size from a height of a few inches to 5 feet and in length from a few feet to nearly 40 feet. The interval between dams varied with the gradient of the slope of the drainage and the height of the dams. These dams impounded and conserved the melting snows of spring and the sudden downpours of summer. Since they were situated for the most part on bare sandstone, absorption was quite rapid. However, an impervious shale seam a hundred feet or more below the overlying sandstone cap of the mesa intercepted the water, "disappearing from the above and again made it available at the seeps and springs where the shale seam was exposed in the much deeper adjacent canyon." By this method a great area of sandstone was saturated as a sponge, and weeks later, when the reservoirs above were probably dry, perfectly filtered and nearly ice-cold water was available, even in periods of moderately continued drought. [6]

3. Spruce Tree House

Superintendent Nusbaum followed very closely the policy of repairing ruins already excavated, in preference to carrying on exploration work. Under his supervision the ruins were put every year in the best condition that the funds permitted. Ruins regularly visited by tourists were generally maintained when water was available. Repair and maintenance of ruins was done by a small crew of workmen, which included masons. During winter the ruins received a thorough cleaning.

In 1923 a 50-foot slab from the roof of the Spruce Tree cave fell, but only one end did some damage to the ruin. The slab fell just outside the main parapet wall at the south half of the ruin, the space between the broken slab and the wall being but about two feet. This was not an unusual occurrence, being caused by extremely wet weather followed by a heavy frost.

With funds provided by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Nusbaum and the rangers were able to excavate the north refuse space of Spruce Tree House during the winter of 1923-24. They had to use electric flood lighting units for illumination and automatic respirators for protection of the workers' lungs.

Because of darkness and dust, the early pot-hunters on the mesa failed to excavate this site. Two burials, both of children, were found in the course of the excavations, one of which was partially mummified or dessicated. It was wrapped first in coarsely woven cotton cloth, then inclosed in a netting of yucca fiber cord, and finally covered with a large piece of basket-weave matting. The other burial, skeleton only, was accompanied by a mug, a ladle, a digging stick, and two ring baskets filled with food. Several corrugated storage or cooking jars of various sizes were found, together with much miscellaneous material, which were displayed in the museum. The space had been used primarily for the storage of food and as an enclosure for turkeys, compact strata of turkey droppings over a foot in thickness being found in the darkest portions of the cave. [7]

4. Step House

Considerable archeological work was carried on in 1926 with the fund established by Rockefeller to enable the park to undertake intensive excavations during winters. These excavations were for the purpose of gaining additional information for campfire talks, and to increase and broaden the scope of the museum exhibits and collections.

During January and February when snow was available as a water supply, excavations were again carried on by park forces under the direction of Nusbaum. Nearly a month was spent in excavating the apparently barren section of Step House Cave, on Wetherill Mesa, the scene of much commercial digging and pothunting before the creation of the park.

The whole floor of the cave had been dug over and back filled, but by careful troweling of the previously handled earth and debris, quantities of potsherds and many small objects were found. Nearly four feet below the old compacted cave floor, level, floors of three circular subterranean rooms were found, 15 to 17 feet in diameter, between the upright sandstone slabs which formed low confining walls.

Stiff clay had been pressed down and molded on the tops of the upright slabs to form an even surface, or extended outward to form a narrow ledge about the room. The remains of charred poles protruded from the earth about a foot above the ledge or molding and at an angle that would cause them to intersect at a height of approximately 5 or 6 feet above the floor, indicating the method of roofing. In the two largest rooms four upright poles set in quadrangular fashion within the circular floor show the method of bracing the larger and heavier roofs. One room had a fire pit similar in location, size, and form to that of the cliff-dweller kiva.

These three rooms are the first concrete evidence that the 'late basket-maker culture,' probably contemporaneous if not antedating the beginning of the Christian era, inhabited the Mesa Verde. Heretofore ruins of this 8 type had not been reported from this area. [8]

An important collection was made at this site and one large case in the museum was devoted to its display.

5. Fewkes, Cliff, Soda, and Long Canyons

In Fewkes Canyon, directly across from the New Fire House, a cave roof had fallen, practically blocking off the rear portion of the cave. Cliff dwellings at one time had been built on the fallen slabs, but later were removed. In the very restricted area far back in the cave some excellent "late basket-maker" material was uncovered, indicating a wide distribution of this early culture on the mesa. Among the many interesting objects found were two large tapered cylinders of crystallized salt. Imprints of the molders' hands were still evident.

In the great cave north of Cliff Palace, called Buried House, because it was supposed a great cliff ruin was buried underneath the rock fall, trenching through the barrier proved this supposition to be wrong. A cliff dweller kiva and several attached rooms built in the rear of the cave back of the rock fall were cleared out, and again, in the depths of the cave potsherds of "late basket-maker" origin were found.

A five-day exploration trip was made to the east side of the park, to a small cliff ruin in Soda Canyon. The work involved clearing out two square kivas which were most unusual in shape and which had been previously excavated by early pot hunters, as well as by former Ranger Jeep and his crew. Some articles of extreme value and importance were found which formed important additions to the museum display.

Excellent cliff dweller material was also found in a small cliff dwelling ruin in Long Canyon, on the western mesa of the park, previously excavated by John Wetherill in 1891.

The testing of several kivas and rooms previously excavated by pot hunters before Mesa Verde was created a national park indicated that much could still be regained by scientific excavation. Many excellent specimens of cliff dweller origin were found on the surface off from the trails by Deric, the superintendent's son and various park visitors, and were turned in to the museum for cataloguing and display. [9]

6. Moccasin Mesa

During 1927 camp was established for a 22-day period in March on the rim of Moccasin Mesa on the east side of Soda Canyon just south and east of Balcony House. From this base, work for the first few days was centered in a small cliff dwelling one-fourth mile distant, subsequently named Bone Awl House because of the excellent series of bone awls found in one of the three unique square kivas at this site, two of which had been cleared of much previously disturbed debris during a 5-day period in January of 1926. In addition to miscellaneous materials, one final large coiled and indented cooking or storage jar with one cover and one large decorated water jar or olla were found. The balance of previously excavated debris was troweled over again with less success than normally. This site was mapped and photographed.

The balance of the period was devoted to a very thorough examination of a small unnamed cliff ruin, two-thirds of a mile east and south of Bone Awl House. This ruin consisted of three small rooms, one kiva, the remaining half of a two-story detached tower, nine corn-grinding bins in a continuous line near the rear, and a protective or defensive wall along the front of the west half of the cave. Early pot hunters had pitted much of its debris, which was very deep in the central part of the ruin. Many artifacts were found in this ruin, which was completely mapped and photographed as the work progressed. [10]

7. Consulting archeologist

Since 1921 Superintendent Nusbaum had been sending the Secretary of the Interior reports of violations of the Antiquities Act in the Four Corners region of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. In mid-1927 the Secretary of the Interior designated Nusbaum consulting archeologist of the department with authority in the field to conform with the provisions of the Antiquities Act. He was to report any violation and in an emergency he could act with the department in enforcing any prohibitions. [11]

8. Wetherill and Chapin Mesas

Archeological investigations were continued by Nusbaum during 1928. The work included excavations at an early pueblo burial mound in the southern portion of Chapin Mesa and investigations at Wetherill Mesa on the western side of the park. Over 40 restorable jars and bowls were uncovered at the two sites. These were added to the museum collection after restoration. As in the past three years, the work was made possible by donations from Mr. Rockefeller.

In the burial mound at Chapin Mesa six undisturbed burials and three badly disturbed ones were uncovered at its edge before snow and frost stopped the work. Fifteen pieces of pottery of early pueblo type, mostly complete, were recovered from the six undisturbed burials.

Early in March Nusbaum and a party of seven proceded to Wetherill Mesa by pack outfit. Here they spent about three weeks in further examination and study of ruins Nos. 11 to 19, inclusive. This group of ruins ranked second only to the regularly visited ruins of Chapin Mesa in size and importance. Unfortunately, because of the wealth of recoverable artifacts from these ruins, they were subjected to the severest exploitation by the early pothunters from 1889 to the creation of the park. With the exception of the badly disturbed front terrace section of Long House, next in size to Cliff Palace, this group had been most diligently excavated and searched for artifacts.

Camp was established in the snow just above Long House and the whole series of ruins studied from this base. Collections were made of representative potsherds from each site. The abundance of them from ruin No. 16 permitted a retroweling of all debris in this ruin to regain all its potsherds, as well as those on the partially snow-covered talus below the ruin. The same process was followed in certain more favorable kivas in other ruins. One partially excavated kiva in Jug House (No. 11) and one in ruin No. 12 constituted the new excavations. In ruin No. 11 a rather remarkable bird pendant of hematite, with eyes of small bits of rock crystal set in drilled sockets with piñon gum, was found in one of the upper level rooms. On return to headquarters the many pack loads of potsherds were washed, stored, and classified. From those regained, on completion of the process of matching, mending, and preparation, it was possible to add numerous bowls and jars to the museum display from ruins not represented up to that time. Among those on display were some of the finest in shape, design, and workmanship "so far recovered in this area." Mapping, sketching, and photographing completed the daily record of the winter's expedition. [12]

Again in 1929, toward the middle of April, camp was established far south on the west rim of Wetherill Mesa, within a short distance of ruins 16 and 11. The purpose this time was to search again previously excavated debris from the early pot hunting expeditions. Many pieces of pottery were recovered.

Early pothunters had completely wrecked the few low walls and rooms in a deep, small cave just below ruin No. 12. Two previously unexcavated, depressed areas well toward the front of the cave proved to be typical Mesa Verde kivas of the earlier type. Four child and one adult burials were found in the north kiva at varying levels well above the floor, all without accompaniments of any kind. A complete record, photographic and otherwise, was kept of the progress of the work.

Park museum exhibits benefitted handsomely from the tedious process of recovering the discarded sherds of early pothunting expeditions, followed by a second slow process of matching, mending and repairing, in preparation for exhibit. This method constituted the only possible means of gaining representative collections from the west side cliff dwellings which were so repeatedly excavated long before the area was created a national park. [13]

Because of the absence of Superintendent Nusbaum during the winter no field work or excavations were accomplished in 1930. However, some little research was carried on in the museum. Experienced masons, with Navajo helpers, continued the repairing and strengthening of ruins visited by the public. Each year the cliff dwellings were subjected to heavier traffic and the element of time alone was an important factor. In the near future it would be absolutely necessary for the park to maintain a consistent annual program for the repair and maintenance of all excavated major archeological remains. The fact that an unexcavated ruin would stand indefinitely did not apply to ruins that had been excavated, since the wall-supporting earth was removed in the process.

As the department archeologist, the superintendent cooperated with other monuments in planning repair and preservation work. He rendered advisory service to all branches of the department, as well as to the scientific and educational institutions contemplating or engaged in archeological investigations on the lands of the public domain under its jurisdiction. [14]

9. Tree-ring chronology—Nusbaum on leave

In connection with archeological research, the superintendent wrote that Dr. A. E. Douglas, leader of the National Geographic tree-ring expeditions of the 1920's, finally had succeeded in erecting an unbroken tree-ring chronology extending from shortly before the year 700 A. D. to modern times in Mesa Verde.

By means of this chronology pine and fir timbers, either sound or charred, found in ruins can be accurately dated if cut within the limits of the present chronology. Forty-nine beam cores or ends were collected from cliff-house structures within the park some years back. In his preliminary report, Doctor Douglass ascribed the date 1073 A. D. to the earliest beam of the series, one found in Cliff Palace, and the year 1262 A. D. to the latest, which was taken from Spruce Tree House, probably thus confining the construction of the principal cliff-dwelling structures in the park within this period of time. This contribution of Doctor Douglass has been of particular and outstanding importance in the annals of southwestern archeological research.

In the fall of 1929 Earl H. Morris and Superintendent Nusbaum definitely established the fact that the ruin heretofore designated as "Earth Lodge A" was a typical structure of the Basket Maker III period or culture and not a distinct type of new structure as had been previously supposed. Incomplete excavation of the site years ago led to this erroneous conclusion. Other structures of like type were found adjacent thereto. Normally this type of home site is found scattered along the rolling ridges that divide the watershed of the more level mesa lands. There are literally hundreds of such remains within the park area. [15]

On January 4, the Secretary of the Interior approved a year's leave of absence for Superintendent Nusbaum, placing him on a per diem status. He was to assume the acting directorship of the Laboratory of Anthropology at Santa Fe, to which he had been unanimously elected, and still devote at least a fourth of his time to his work for Mesa Verde and the department. Under the new appointment, new headquarters were established at Santa Fe, New Mexico, and at the park. Chief Park Ranger C. Marshall Finnan was designated acting superintendent in the absence of Nusbaum. [16]

Public interest in southwestern archeology had grown rapidly during the decade of the 1920's. Mesa Verde, as a significant contributor to the story of prehistoric man in the Southwest had received constantly increasing attention, resulting in 18,003 visitors to the park in 1930, the greatest travel it had so far experienced. Santa Fe's Laboratory of Anthropology was the direct result of this public interest in prehistoric man. [17]

On March 16, 1931, Nusbaum resigned as superintendent of Mesa Verde to accept permanent appointment as director of the new Laboratory of Anthropology, established for the specific purpose of collecting and studying all data pertaining to the American Indian. The department retained his services as consulting archeologist.

In September, the new institution was formally opened in the presence of a number of the ranking archeologists and anthropologists of the nation. The one building completed was but the first unit of the vast laboratory that would be developed as time went on. [18]

Nusbaum did not stay away from Mesa Verde for a long time. He was superintendent again in 1936-39 and 1942-46.

F. Education and interpretation

1. Museum development

a. Mrs Leviston's donation

Directly connected with Nusbaum's archeological field work was the development of an adequate museum in Mesa Verde to replace the almost makeshift exhibits of the log cabin where some objects of the handiwork of the cliff dwellers were displayed. Each year the need for museums in the national parks became more urgent with the repeated and multiplying inquiries of visitors regarding the national features and objects of historical value found in the reservations. In certain cases museums showed what the parks had to offer and what could be seen by the observant visitor; in others they performed an even more important function of supplementing the attractions of the park themselves. Proper museum buildings, adequately equipped were indispensable additions to developing the educational advantages of the parks.

Mainly through Ranger Jeep's promiscuous pothunting activities a log-cabin museum had been established. Both Fewkes and Nusbaum had warned the ranger about this matter. Jeep did not realize, wrote Nusbaum,

that specimens alone in a museum are worth nothing without the scientific data regarding them and he has never attempted to keep a notebook. Dr. Fewkes and his assistant, Earl Linton, two years ago, worked with Jeep in getting up a catalogue of his material and I will see that it is completed and the material properly prepared for exhibition, and do what I can to get the data which identifies it as to ruins, etc. etc.

Jeep has gotten together a very creditable collection of the cliff dwellers culture of the park, and it is the nucleus on which a bigger museum can be built, but frankly, Mr. Mather, his methods have been those of the pothunter and not of the scientist .... We want a museum here that can stand the acid test of the scientific man, and for that reason I have told Jeep that until further notice he is in no way to do more prospecting. Jeep is excusable, he didn't know the value of anything outside the specimens themselves. His interest in this work is most commendable and if rightly directed, will be of much value to us later. [1]

A small improvement was made early in 1921 when the log cabin was renovated. It was attractively furnished with heavy rustic cedar furniture and served as a very comfortable restroom and museum where visitors viewed the relics, wrote their letters and cards, or sat down in front of the fireplace and chatted. The broad veranda overlooking the canyon below was changed and improved, making it more attractive. Transplanted desert vegetation dispelled the barren appearance of the log building.

There was immediate need of a fireproof museum. Through the awakened interest all over Colorado in the park, the superintendent received many unexpected but highly pleasing offers of the return of much of the pothunting relics from those who owned them, provided that a suitable museum were constructed for their housing and display. [2]

Mesa Verde had no marked entrance where the road crossed the boundary, and visitors had no means of knowing when they entered upon park lands. This had been noted and commented upon by hundreds of visitors. One of these visitors, Mrs. Stella M. Leviston of San Francisco, suggested that an appropriate entrance be built, and asked the privilege of financing the undertaking, stipulating only that it should be something in harmony with the surroundings and substantial, regardless of cost.

In 1921 Mrs. Leviston offered to donate $1,000 for the purpose of erecting an entrance gateway to the park. Subsequently Superintendent Nusbaum suggested and Mrs. Leviston agreed to use the money as a contribution to a museum in Mesa Verde. Plans were drawn by Mrs. Nusbaum and submitted to Mrs. Leviston and met with her approval. These plans provided for building the museum in several units. The first unit was to consist of four rooms. Mrs. Leviston expressed a desire to pay for the first unit herself and at one time declared that she hoped it might be an incentive for others to continue the work. She thereupon gave $2,000 to be added to the $1,000 originally intended for the gateway. Sometime later she made other donations, bringing her total to $5,000.

b. Construction problems

Construction of the museum was begun in the summer of 1923 and it was expected that the building would be ready for use during the season of 1924. Considerable progress was made before, the close of the 1923 season but in the spring of 1924 certain conditions arose that caused postponement of the work. Still further delays resulted from subsequent developments.

The excessive rains of the 1923 summer made the roads impassable from time to time, so that a great deal of material destined for construction work in the park headquarters area could not be hauled in before the roads were closed for the winter. For this reason a large part of the construction work authorized by Congress for completion within the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924, had to be postponed until spring. As soon as the roads were open in the spring of 1924 all efforts had to be concentrated on this authorized work, comprising a warehouse, a shop building, a public comfort station, and clerk's quarters. The completion of these structures, together with the work of repairing roads and opening the park for the season, absorbed all the time and labor available during the later part of May and the month of June. Practically no work was done on the museum during these months.

Under ordinary circumstances work would have gone on rapidly after the first of July, but again abnormal weather conditions interfered. The season of 1924 was marked by an extraordinary deficiency of rainfall throughout the western part of the United States, and nowhere was this more apparent than in the park. The supply of stored water, even in normal seasons, was very limited and barely met ordinary requirements. The shortage during 1924 was so serious that it was necessary to close the hotel bathhouse from the middle of June to the middle of September and to reduce laundry to a minimum. The only heavy rain during the midsummer was on August 3rd, and here again the extreme conditions characteristic of the region were illustrated when a cloudburst seriously damaged the water storage system. The shortage of water continued until after the middle of September. On top of all this, the travel to the park during the summer of 1924 surpassed all previous records.

No doubt the water supply at Mesa Verde determined inexorably the activities that could be carried on in the park. With barely enough water to provide for essential uses, there remained but little for construction, and such as there was had to be used for the repair of the water storage system. The principal work to be done at the museum was masonry requiring water for mortar, so that, with the exception of some carpentry, very little work was done during August. It was not until the later part of September that enough water could be spared to resume masonry work. [3]

After more trials and tribulations, the museum was completed and opened to visitors early in the spring of 1925. It was located on the cliff just west of Spruce Tree House, about 100 feet north of the log-cabin museum, and occupied the former site of the hotel.

The park museum, that is the first four rooms, formed the first unit of the administrative group, following the same style of architecture as the superintendent's home and the administrative building.

One of the most gratifying indications of the interest of visitors in the park was reflected in the help which they extended to it. Museum building was an activity that was not covered by congressional appropriations. With the exception of the fine old museum cases and a major portion of the archeological collection, Mesa Verde had its friends to thank for its fine large museum building, the furniture and fixtures and pictures therein, the acquisition of valuable archeological, ethnological, and historical records and exhibits, the large scientific reference library, and even funds to cover excavation projects to secure more material for exhibits. A voluntarily supported first-aid tent maintained at headquarters for the convenience of visitors and injured employees had more than supported itself. Financial assistance was also extended in helping defray the expenses involved in producing the wonderful ceremonial Indian plays. The value of gifts to the park during 1921 to 1925 was more than what Congress appropriated for its maintenance and improvements in 1921. Mrs. Leviston and Mr. Rockefeller, Jr. contributed $5,000 each. The organization of the library was due to the indefatigable efforts of Mrs. Nusbaum who also contributed many hours of her time to the preparation of the exhibit material with the superintendent. [4]

c. Collections

In 1925 the Director announced that the newest phase of educational work in the parks was the museum service. It was not the policy of the Park Service, he wrote, to establish elaborate museums in any of the national parks, or to have them considered "show" places. Rather, they were to be regarded as places to stimulate the interest of visitors in the things of the great outdoors by the presentation of exhibits telling in a clear way the story of the park from its geological beginning through all branches of history up to and including the coming of man and his work. The national parks themselves were the real museums of nature, and the park museum in each park would serve as an index to the wonders that could be studied and enjoyed on the ground by the observant student of nature. [5]

After the museum was opened to the public, the superintendent was running a kind of museum preparation school, with Mrs. Nusbaum and Park Ranger Finnan's wife matching pottery, mending, and preparing material for exhibits. The large, well-lighted exhibit rooms made possible the display of the park collections that had been stored for lack of room. With the employment of Mrs. Finnan as a museum assistant to care for the collections and explain the exhibits, public interest in the museum was intensified. In the preparation of exhibits Nusbaum followed the methods of the new National Museum of Washington, the Museum of the American Indian in New York and the Museum of New Mexico. [6]

In speaking of his visit to Mesa Verde, Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden, a noted authority on museums and their installation as well as a most able archeologist, said that the park museum was one of the finest he had inspected in the United States. By contributions in cash and donations of collections the growth of the museum had been phenomenal. In 1926, for instance, funds had been pledged to the extent of approximately $9,000, covering enlargement of the existing building display cases for exhibit of material not yet on display, and to permit the continuation of the winter excavations.

Every park visitor was interested in the museum exhibits. Many called for particular subjects or publications in the reference library; some requested reading lists for future use; and others had become well known to the park personnel because of the time they spent in study in the museum. [7]

Each year the extent and scope of the collections were enlarged by the winter excavations. The reference library was likewise growing from year to year. In 1929 there were already on display in the museum 14 large wall-type cases of archeological exhibits, mainly gained from the park area; four similar cases of ethnological exhibits, representing arts and crafts of the modern Indians of the reservations adjacent to the park area; and one case devoted to geology. The exhibits, together with minor display of other materials, occupied all available space in the museum building, with the exception of a portion of the largest room which had been temporarily partitioned off to provide storage and preparation space.

Never in the history of the park, wrote Nusbaum,

have so many scientists visited the area. Museum directors, curators, archeologists, ethnologists, paleontologists, geologists, botanists, as well as those working in associated sciences, have been coming and going all season, some coming for serious study in the area for several weeks at a time, others for inspection of park educational and museum activities, a few purely on annual vacation, while many from the archeological field in the Southwest have come to discuss their field problems, as their operations on the public domain, under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior, is regulated under permits granted by the Secretary on application previously referred to this office for consideration and report. [8]

By 1930 so many new and important acquisitions had been gained that additional storage, preparation, and work space was desperately needed, particularly after the appointment in 1929 of a park naturalist who greatly advanced the scope the museum and educational work. An addition to the museum building was contemplated for some time in the near future, with funds pledged by Rodkefeller. [9] In this latter connection Nusbaum wrote:

Although relatively small, the amount of Mr. Rockefeller's contributions toward museum development in Mesa Verde National Park is of notable significance to the Service, for here, in the absence of Federal support for museum development, we stimulated the cooperative interest in Service objectives which prompted him, for the first time, to contribute to the achievement of Service objectives; and which led, following his visit here, to his meeting Horace Albright, per my plan, and to his (Mr. Rockefeller's) proposal to support roadside cleanup in Yellowstone; and subsequently to his similar proposal of a comparable cleanup program for Glacier.

Interest aroused in Mesa Verde, in Southwestern archeology and the arts and crafts of Southwestern Indians led to Mr. Rockefeller's substantial support and establishment of the Laboratory of Anthropology at Santa Fe following several vacation periods largely spent in pursuing these interest's in the Southwest, along lines and persons suggested by me. The history of his most generous and substantial cooperation with the Service is well known to all personnel from this time on. [10]

2. Interpretive development

The Mesa Verde museum was one of the obvious ways of doing educational and interpretive work in the park. Interpretive work, however, was really started by Fewkes before the log-cabin museum was established. During his excavation of Sun Temple in 1915, he was persuaded by Oddie Jeep, the lodge concessioner, to give campfire talks. These were delivered around a fire hole dug by Ranger Jeep in front of the lodge building which was located where the present museum stands. [11]

In his long and informal campfire talks, Fewkes made an effort to explain the ruins and present related archeological problems. These talks were well attended; the audiences sometimes numbering 20 or 30 persons. Talks were generally given when there were 10 or 12 persons interested. In bad weather the talks were given in the small museum building. [12]

Fewkes also made another interesting contribution to the field of interpretation. In 1918 he suggested planting a crop of corn on an area of about 30 yards in the vicinity of Mummy Lake for the purpose of experiment. He desired to show what might be done in the way of establishing ancient conditions in connection with the development of the ruins of the park. His suggestion was to plant Navajo corn seed or the Hopi corn. [13]

Fewkes' suggestion was put into effect in May 1919, when the corn was planted. [14] Many people, wrote Superintendent Rickner, had doubted the assertion that the corn found in the ruins was raised on the mesa without irrigation. Many specimens of corn had been found in the ruins, and the question naturally arose as to where it came from. A demonstration was made in 1919 that showed conclusively that corn could be raised on the mesa without irrigation. Two small areas were planted and an abundant harvest of excellent quality was obtained. A few potatoes were also planted as a test and they yielded good returns. Another crop of corn planted on the mesa gave the same excellent results. [15]

When Nusbaum became superintendent of the park in 1921, he soon realized that it was essential to develop an educational and interpretive program, of which the museum was one of the essential features. Under Superintendent Rickner, the vital service of guiding visitors through the ruins, as an educational and protective measure, was completely neglected, becoming a business affair of the superintendent's family. According to Nusbaum, the chief ranger's eight-year-old son, Fitz Jeep, had a sign posted in the log-cabin museum stating that he was the best guide in Mesa Verde, and knew everything about archeology. Ranger Jeep maintained a string of five or six saddle horses, including packs, for rental to visitors. Only important people, government officials in particular, were guided through the ruins by him. Nusbaum corrected this situation by replacing the park ranger and other government employees who were not loyal to his administrative and management policies. [16]

Nusbaum's program of education and interpretation evolved through three different but integrated agencies or tools: first, a specially selected and instructed ranger-guide service which conducted all visitors to and through the major ruins; second, the park museum, with its associated activities; and last, the informal evening campfire talks conducted by the superintendent and rangers, covering the broader aspects of the work of the National Park Service and the prehistoric cultures of the Southwest.

As far as guide service was concerned, a schedule was established, morning and afternoon, when visitors driving their cars were conducted without charge on caravan trips, under ranger or official guides on interpretive trips. Both the seasonal rangers and the official guides were selected, trained and indoctrinated by the superintendent. Rangers selected were usually college students who were specializing in Southwestern archeology or some branch of archeology. This system of auto caravans was so successful and popular that it was adopted by Yosemite, Yellowstone, Sequoia, and Grand Canyon National Parks. [17]

Regular campfire programs were inaugurated in the summer of 1921 after improvement of the old fireplace. In the center of Spruce Tree Camp a rustic cedar rail fence, supported by heavy cedar crotches, was constructed, forming a circle 75 feet in diameter. Within the center of this area a fire bowl, similar to one discovered by Fewkes in his excavation of New Fire House, was built for the campfire at night. The idea was to have regular campfire talks regarding the ruins, their inhabitants, and their culture. Native vegetation was transplanted in groups under the rails and at the entrances, and rustic seats arranged for the convenience of visitors. [18]

Evening campfire talks soon became one of the most enjoyable and educational activities of the park. At first Nusbaum and Fewkes gave the talks, but later the rangers conducted them after the superintendent had "broken the ice" and given salient facts regarding archeology of the Southwest and compared the culture of the cliff dwellers with that of the earlier post-Basket Maker and Basket Maker people.

Many noted educators, scientists and archeologists, together with other widely known visitors, were requested by the rangers and the superintendent to give short impromptu talks on any topic in which they were interested. Their talks were most enlightening and interesting to the visitors.

In their talks the rangers covered the more important points of interest in the park, touching on the geology, the flora and fauna, new discoveries, policy of the park administration in the care and preservation of the ruins, and general archeological interpretation.

Campfire talks were

soon followed by a "Navajo Sing", given voluntarily after a little pursuasion, by the Navajo employees working in and about Spruce Tree Camp. They appeared in their regular work clothes. Their number varied from 8 to 10 up to 50 - 60 or more on week ends. Subsequently, to improve the program and appearances, six or seven of the best singers and dancers were selected and pursuaded to give two parts of the Yebeichai Dance Ceremony, and a Circle Sing in the white pants, velveteen shirt, and silk kerchief head-band which we furnished, with the understanding that they could pass the hat for voluntary contributions between the second and final parts of their program. On rare occasions, Dr. Fewkes, then an ailing elderly man, could be pursuaded to give the archeological or ethnological talk. [19]

Occasionally noted singers delighted the visitors with impromptu concerts given from Spruce Tree House ruins, the cave acting as a great amplifier which made even the softest notes audible in camp. [20]

A ceremonial play—"The Eagle Woman"—was given in Spruce Tree House for the first time on June 28, 1924, in honor of the Brooklyn Eagle Party, and again on July 5, at the time of the visit of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.'s party.

Both in the mythology of the Navajo, as well as that of the Zuni Pueblo Indians, the "Eagle Woman" was a most important and sacred character. Mrs. Nusbaum wrote a ceremonial play based on this mythology, designed for enactment in the ruins of Spruce Tree House. After gaining the confidence of the leading Navajos and a medicine man employed in the park, she gradually unfolded her plans to them, and they agreed to enact the various parts of the drama, including the songs and dances in costume within the ruins, which normally they would not enter. Costumes were designed and executed and 18 Indians trained for their various parts. The cave and the various parts of the ruins were lighted by red and green railroad flares, which were set and shielded to produce the striking lighting effects. The large crowd of visitors watched from the opposite rim of Spruce Tree Canyon. [21]

Special significance was attached to the element of fire in the mythology, the folklore, and the ceremonies of both the Navajo and the Pueblo Indians. Since one ruin in the park was undoubtedly dedicated solely to fire worship, Mrs. Nusbaum conceived the idea of reenacting in Spruce Tree House a sacred fire ceremony, basing her story on the Hopi and Navajo fire ceremonies. She wrote the play, designed the costumes, secured the good will of the Navajo medicine men, and trained 40 Navajo men to their parts. The play was given on July 2, 1925, for a congressional group, and again on July 5. Approximately 700 persons attended the two performances, some cars making special trips from over 400 miles distant. [22]

The "fire" play of Mrs. Nusbaum was produced three times in the 1926 season as part of the educational work of the park. On October 4, while the national park superintendent's annual conference was in session in Mesa Verde, Mrs. Nusbaum gave the play to demonstrate the educational possibilities of such a production. On the evening of June 16, the play was again produced on the occasion of the visit of the Rockefeller's party in recognition of the intense interest Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Foundation in National Park Service activities.

On July 19, the play as given for the last time during the season, in honor of the visit to the park of Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf and Crown Princess Louise of Sweden and their royal party. Approximately 800 visitors witnessed the three productions. [23]

Each year the direct and accumulated information of the park was presented to visitors in better manner through the three media of interpretation: museum, ranger-guide service, and campfire talks. In 1930, for the first time, an accurate check was kept on the number of people availing themselves of these services, and the very important fact was brought to light that the average visitor inspected the museum at least twice during his stay. A total of 20,964 people availed themselves of the conducted ruin trips; 8,961 attended the campfire lectures, and a total of 21,011 visited the museum. In all, a total of 50,936 visitors was served by the park rangers and naturalist. Apparently 1930 was the first time that educational and nature work was placed in the hands of a park naturalist—Paul R. Franke—who a few years later became superintendent. [24]

One of the first contributions of the new park naturalist was the publication of "Mesa Verde Notes," a pamphlet edited by him and distributed without charge. This was an important new step in the development and advancement of educational work in the park. The word nature was purposely avoided in the title of the pamphlet because the park people wished to cover the broader aspects of Mesa Verde and its prehistoric human inhabitants, as well as the natural features and phenomena. Every effort was made to obtain articles that carried some human interest and the story of the prehistoric peoples, the modern Indian, or wild life of the park. [25]

Park Naturalist Franke also founded in 1930 the Mesa Verde Museum Association, known at first as Mesa Verde Library Association. The Mesa Verde Museum Association was designated as a cooperating scientific and historical association on April 1, 1937, and by letter of May 12, 1950, from Director Drury, was authorized to use space in government-owned buildings without charge as might be determined by the superintendent. Now the Association's activities are integrated with the interpretive program. [26]

Today the four elements of interpretation that evolved through the first administration of Nusbaum—museum, guide-service, campfire talks, and the museum association—are still the kernel of the interpretive program of the park. If there are any differences between the old and the new programs it is a matter of degree and not of kind. In spite of some changes the programs are basically the same.

G. Administration

As a whole, what made possible the quality of visitors' services was the facilities provided by the headquarters complex and the increase of qualified personnel. With the exception of roads, trails, and telephone lines, all developments within the park area were centered at Spruce Tree Camp, where housing and other facilities were available to care for all park visitors and personnel, as well as administration, protection, maintenance, development, and other activities of the government in this area. As necessity arose, minor development of housing facilities for park workers was taking place in areas far distant from park headquarters.

In 1930 seven employees constituted the field organization: an archeologist-superintendent, chief clerk-special disbursing agent, assistant clerk-stenographer, park naturalist, chief ranger, permanent ranger, and park mechanic. During the open travel season this force was augmented by the addition of 15 temporary employees consisting principally of ranger guides to care for visitors and the other open season activities. All temporary rangers formed part of the education division of the park, and through these men the service was brought in direct contact with the visiting public, since, under the existing procedure, all the visitors to the ruins had to be accompanied by ranger guides. Except for skilled help, such as gradermen, carpenters, and the like, Navajo Indians from the adjacent reservation formed more than 90 per cent of the labor force. They were excellent workmen and their employment was to the mutual benefit of the government and themselves. During winter the permanent force was occupied with general improvement work: archeological investigations and excavations; important museum work consisting of the preparation and installation of exhibits; small construction projects; the manufacture of equipment, particularly furniture for public buildings, which was designed by the superintendent and made in the carpenter shop at park headquarters; the overhauling and repair of all automobile equipment; snow removal and maintenance of the main park highway, and the regular office routine and administrative duties. [1]