Mesa Verde Administrative History

In the summer of 1907 the Department of the Interior requested the Smithsonian Institution to assign Dr. Fewkes, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, to take charge of the excavation, preservation and repair of the cliff dwellings and other prehistoric ruins in Mesa Verde National Park. It was the understanding between the Department and the Smithsonian that Fewkes would have exclusive control of the work and be prepared to submit progress reports from time to time as requested by the Department. The Smithsonian would be permitted to publish the scientific results of the investigations made by Fewkes in the course of his operations in the park. [1]

Fewkes had been strongly recommended by Dr. Hewett, who felt that his "masterly excavation" and protection of Casa Grande ruins would furnish a worthy standard for the archeological work that was necessary on the Mesa Verde cliff dwellings. These, as prey of treasure-hunters and unscientific collectors for many years, had suffered irreparable damage. Many important structures were completely demolished and in many cases walls partially destroyed and left in condition for further rapid deterioration. There was need for immediate repairs in major ruins like Cliff Palace, Spruce Tree House, Balcony House, and many others, to prevent the collapse of walls that had been left unsupported. The ruins were full of debris which had to be removed carefully in order to show the buildings in as nearly their original conditions as possible and the remaining artifacts of the ancient inhabitants brought to light. It was hoped that in the handling of the Mesa Verde ruins nothing short of the best scientific methods would be permitted. [2]

A. Spruce Tree House

During the months of May and June, 1908, Fewkes excavated and repaired Spruce Tree House, one of the largest ruins in the park. During the excavations, Hewett and ten students of the Archeological Institute of America "pursued studies among the ruins" of Mesa Verde. [3]

Although Hewett had suggested the excavation of Cliff Palace first, Fewkes chose Spruce Tree House for several practical reasons. It was located near the place where all visitors camped after their long and hard trip up the mesa, and it was the first large cliff dwelling which they saw. It was also easy of access, had the best nearby water supply, and was within a convenient distance of the other major ruins of the Chapin Mesa. Besides, he felt, the house contained all the important architectural features found in other ruins, and after properly cleaned and repaired, it would convey a good idea of cliff dwelling life and thus serve as a model for subsequent examination of other ruins, especially larger ones like Cliff Palace.

Spruce Tree House, filled with rubbish and about to fall rapidly into further decay, was completely cleared of all loose stones, dirt, and other debris. Walls that were found to be in dangerous condition were properly repaired and strengthened, and such restoration was done as seemed necessary for the protection of the buildings. This work was preceded by the construction of channels to turn the water from the ruin, the building of trails, labeling objects of interest, and grading the approaches to the house, which was almost inaccessible when work began.

Fewkes was extremely visitor-oriented. To make the ruins more attractive to visitors and increase their educational value was the thought that was always in his mind. His idea of work in the house was to develop in the park a "type ruin" that would illustrate to the public the general features of prehistoric buildings, He planned to show the meaning of their different parts, the construction and essential features of the rooms, and their arrangement and special uses. Another ideal in his mind was to treat the ruin

so as to make it an object lesson for archeological students, showing by this means how ruins should be excavated and repaired. Hitherto, with the exception of the work wider the author's direction at Casa Grande, by the Smithsonian Institute, archeological field work in the Southwest has been devoted mainly to making collections of pottery and small portable antiquities. In the efforts to gather these minor antiquities the walls of ruins have been mutilated and left practically without any thought of protection from the elements. Architectural data has been sacrificed to obtain collections of those small objects which have a commercial value or will make an artistic impression when arranged on the shelves of a museum.

Repair work at the house, according to Fewkes, was a delicate task. The idea followed was to preserve the original character of the ruin as far as possible, using earthern or soil cement. Repair, not restoration, was the aim: prevention of further disintegration rather than any attempt to rebuild the ruins to their original conditions.

He excavated 114 rooms, the majority of which were secular, and eight ceremonial chambers or kivas. The rooms and courts had been thoroughly dug over by pottery seekers, but between 500 to 600 specimens were found, of which the most valuable were sent to the Smithsonian for study. A large number of the duplicates and all the heavier objects were placed under lock and key in one kiva. [4]

B. Cliff Palace

In the summers of 1909 and 1910 Fewkes continued the excavation and repair program of the park ruins. This work was the continuation of the previous plan of operations at Spruce Tree House. It was limited to Cliff Palace, the largest and one of the most picturesque ruins in the park. Rooms, courts and terraces were completely excavated and the walls carefully repaired and strengthened.

To make the ruin more accessible from the mesa above, a new trail was constructed a short distance from the southern and of the Palace, following a rift between a huge detached rock and the side of the cliff. Near an ancient stairway of foot holes, four ladders were placed one above another, firmly attached to the rock. From the level of the ruin an easy pathway led through the woods to the main entrance, on a level with the lowest terrace.

Probably no cliff dwelling in the Southwest, wrote Fewkes, was more vandalized than Cliff Palace. Souvenir hunters camped

in the ruins for several winters, and it is reported that many hundred specimens therefrom have been carried down the mesa and sold to private individuals. Some of these objects are now in museums, but many are forever lost to science. In order to secure this valuable archeological material, walls were broken down with giant powder, often simply to let light into the darker rooms, floors were invariably opened and buried kivas mutilated. To facilitate this work and get rid of the debris, great openings were broken through the fine walls which form the front of the ruin. Beams were used for firewood to so great an extent that not a single roof now remains. This work of destruction; added to that resulting from the erosion due to torrents of rain, left Cliff Palace in a sad condition. [5]

Cliff Palace, about three times larger than Spruce Tree House, required a greater amount of masonry work. The problem of preservation was more complicated by its terraced front, but the method of preservation was essentially similar to the one used at Spruce Tree House. In some places the walls in front of the cave floor had to be rebuilt.

To permanently protect these sections of the ruin the top of the walls and the plazas were liberally covered with Portland cement, and runaways were constructed to carry off the surface water into gutters by which it was diverted over the retaining walls to fall on the rock foundation beyond. It would be impossible permanently to protect some of these exposed walls without constructing roofs above them; at present every heavy rain is bound to cover the floors of the kivas with water and thus eventually to undermine their foundations. [6]

Although Cliff Palace had been vandalized thoroughly, a fairly good representative collection of artifacts was obtained. Unique specimens were deposited in the National Museum, but many duplicates, especially large objects, were left on the site. Large artifacts, such as metates and those jars that were embedded in the walls, as a rule, were left as they were found.

Vandalism, noted Fewkes, destroyed much of the data and greatly reduced the possibility of generalizations on the character of the Indian culture. Earlier excavations "might have illumined many difficult problems which must forever remain unsolved." [7]

Fewkes' archeological work increased greatly the interest in the park, and demonstrated that provision should be made for the early excavation and repair of other ruins on the Chapin Mesa to be followed later by similar work on the ruins of Rock Canyon, on the western part of the park. [8]

C. Balcony House

After the park was established the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association remained active for many years in the work of preservation. In 1910 it raised the sum of $1,000 for repairs on Balcony House. Since Fewkes was engaged at the time in special archeological investigations on the Navajo Canyon National Monument in northeastern Arizona, the Smithsonian suggested that Dr. Hewett, Director of the School of American Archeology, be requested to assume charge of the excavation and repair of Balcony House; Jesse Nusbaum, also of the School of American Archeology, was assigned the actual job of excavation and repair. [9]

During the fall of 1910 Hewett and Nusbaum made a preliminary study of the conditions of Balcony House. It showed that the work of excavation would be comparatively small, but the work required to preserve the remaining walls from further deterioration would be very difficult. The principal remaining walls of the house had been badly shattered and weakened by shocks occasioned by stone falling from the roof of the cavern, as well as by the operations of vandals in years past. After fully considering the condition of these walls, they decided to secure the services of a consulting constructor and an expert mason before proceeding with the actual work. It was not their intention to attempt to do more in the way of restoration than was absolutely necessary to prevent further deterioration. For the preservation of the walls that were in dangerous condition, the constructors agreed upon a system of angle irons. As the $1,000 was not enough to complete the job, the Department authorized the use of $500 from the $2,000 set aside-for repair of ruins by Fewkes in 1911. The very few specimens found in the House were of little museum value, according to Nusbaum. [10]

D. Sun Temple

In his report on the field work at Cliff Palace in 1909 Fewkes called attention to a mound of stone and earth opposite Cliff Palace that suggested the location of a pueblo ruin. When funds became available in 1915 for the excavation and repair of ruins, Fewkes chose the mound for his operations. This mound, known as Community House, but later called Sun Temple by Fewkes, had the advantage that if properly excavated, it could be conveniently seen by visitors going to Cliff Palace. It was located only two miles from Spruce Tree House and a short walk from other large ruins. A more important consideration, wrote Fewkes,

was that it presented evidences that the buried building belonged to a unique type of ruin in the Mesa Verde, and gave promise of adding an important chapter to our knowledge of the prehistoric people who formerly made their home in the Mesa Verde National Park. These hopes were realized, and the results of three month's work on this mound were more striking than had been expected. There was brought to light a type of ruin hitherto unknown in the park, and, as was well expressed by a visitor, the building excavated shows the best masonry and is the most mysterious structure yet discovered in a region rich in so many prehistoric remains. Although at first there was some doubt as to the use of this building, it was early recognized that it was not constructed for habitation, and it is now believed that it was intended for the performance of rites and ceremonies; the fire of this type yet recognized in the Southwest. [11]

Water was the main cause of destruction of the mesa-top ruin. When it was abandoned by the Indians, the walls were exposed to the sky and unprotected from snow or rain. Water from the melting snow was particularly damaging, since it "percolated between the facings and the core of the wall, and subsequently froze, forcing the facing of the wall away from the central core until it fell."

In repairing the exposed walls, the following method was used:

In order to prevent the water from melting snow from penetrating the walls, or the rain from percolating between the core of the wall and its facing, I placed a cap of cement on the top of all the walls. The inner facing of the outer walls, as a rule, stood a few courses of stone higher than the outer, and it was necessary to add masonry to bring the outer wall to the level of the core and inner facing. Having leveled the top of the wall, I covered it with small, angular fragments of stone, placing these fragments highest in the middle or over the core. Over this roof-like covering was spread a thick layer of adobe. The top of the wall was thus made in a way to shed water. Over this roof of adobe was spread a layer of Portland cement, 2 inches thick, mixed in proportion of 1 to 5, care being taken to use this cement freely in pointing the joints in the facing of the wall in order to prevent the entrance of water in the cracks. The roof shape of this covering or the fact that it is highest in the middle will shed the water and throw it away from the wall without harm. [12]

E. Oak Tree House Daniel's House

This cliff dwelling, situated in Fewkes Canyon and under a perfectly arched natural roof below Sun Temple, was practically inaccessible. The rooms of this house were cleaned out by Fewkes in 1915, and the walls repaired and put in condition for permanent preservation. Ladders were placed in position to afford descent from the rim of the mesa to a pathway made on the talus on which it stood. A small collection of artifacts was made in the course of the repair work. [13]

F. Far View House

In June 1914 Superintendent Rickner called attention to Mummy Lake, a small artificial reservoir on the main road to Spruce Tree Camp. It was the first of the remains of the cliff dwellers' work seen by tourists on their way into the park. He thought the reservoir should be protected and preserved since it was the only "evidence found so far of storing water in the park." It had taken great care and skill in its construction, and there still remained traces of a long ditch which was used, presumably, in filling the reservoir. This reservoir, according to Rickner, was used lately in spring as a watering place for cattle. He was authorized to spend $200 or "as much as necessary, for labor and material required in preserving and restoring Mummy Lake." [14]

In his 1916 report on the excavations of Sun Temple, Fewkes recommended the repair and excavation of the great mounds near Mummy Lake. It was expected that work on the group would reveal important architectural features of new types of ruins and add much to the scientific information already known. Nine mounds were visible and excavation and repair work had to be distributed through several years. [15]

Fewkes devoted the months of July through September, 1916, to excavations and intensive studies of a ruined pueblo at Mummy Lake. The appropriated money was exhausted at the end of September, and he was forced to abandon the work. His plan was to excavate one of the mounds for the purpose of discovering the characteristics of the Mesa Verde pueblos, of which up to that time, "nothing was known." In one mound he uncovered a ruin which he called Far View House because of the distant outlook south of this pueblo. A considerable collection of objects, especially pottery, stone and bone implements, idols and ornaments, was brought to Washington for future study. [16]

Director Mather, in his annual report of 1917, commented that a few thousand dollars a year would make possible the excavations of the other mounds. Within a comparatively short time a great group of pueblos of the past could be cleared and restored. Sometime in the future, he wrote,

there may be a school of archeology in Mesa Verde Park, where students may gather from all our great colleges for a study of the institutions, customs, and characteristics of the vanished race that once inhabited the park. As the National Park Service encourages the use of the parks by students of the natural sciences, so does it invite students of archeology, anthropology, and related sciences to foregather in the Mesa Verde and its monuments of the Southwest, where the remains of a past civilization are preserved. [17]

G. Square Tower

From the summer of 1916 until 1919 no funds were available for the continuation of archeological investigations. While no excavation work was undertaken, repairs were made to several of the large cliff dwellings, including the reinforcement of the foundation of one of the big towers in the Cliff Palace. One of the kivas in Balcony House was repaired, where the water from the spring had undermined the walls. [18]

Another of the immediate needs was the preservation of Square Tower House, a fine example of prehistoric architecture. One of its most interesting features, a great four-story tower, was in danger of toppling over. The house was situated in a shallow cave at the head of a spur of Navajo Canyon. It was considered one of the most attractive cliff dwellings by tourists, but it was almost impossible to reach.

In 1919 funds were obtained and a great part of the field work was devoted to the excavation of the picturesque Square Tower House. A trail was made near the Indian foot holes of the cliff, around which was constructed a balustrade, with ladders conveniently set to aid those who wished to visit the ruin. Great gaps in the masonry of the tower had rendered it in danger of falling; when repaired, the tower was held to the wall of the cliff by iron bands. The interior of the ruin was obstructed by fallen stones and dust, but two months of excavations and repairs put the ruin in fine condition. [19]

H. Earth Lodge A

During the field work of 1919, same time was devoted also to two low prehistoric mounds situated among the cedars on top of the plateau. At least two new types of small-house ruins were discovered. Fewkes was assisted in his field work by Ralph Linton, a temporary assistant, who contributed much to the success of the work. Linton excavated two buildings, one of which was Earth Lodge A, about 50 yards south of the road leading to Square Tower House; a shed was built over it for its protection. [20]

I. Fire Temple

Archeological field work continued during June, August, and September, 1920, with funds provided by the National Park Service. Work was done at the Fire Temple Group and Oak Tree House, ruins in Fewkes Canyon, and at Cedar Tree Tower. In his work Fewkes was ably assisted this time by J. A. Jeancon, who made originals of the ground plans of the Fire Temple Group and Cedar Tree Tower.

In a cave of the precipice below Sun Temple there is a solitary and almost unreachable cliff house, and in a cavern not far up the canyon is Oak Tree (Willow) House, and a "mysterious dance plaza, called Painted House." Of those three ruins, Fewkes excavated and restored two during his field work of 1920.

Painted House had always been regarded as a dwelling house and received its name from the unusual number of ancient paintings found on its walls. Fewkes believed that this was the building in which the sacred fire was constantly kept burning. From this place fire was taken to relight extinguished ones in other houses of the community or to start entirely new blazes. This discovery prompted the change in name to Fire Temple. He also excavated what he called Annex or the New Fire Temple, a small cliff dwelling about a hundred feet to the east.

J. Cedar Tree Tower

After the excavation and restoration of Fire Temple, Fewkes excavated and repaired Cedar Tree Tower, a prehistoric ruin hidden among the cedars a mile north from Spruce Tree House. This ruin belonged to an architectural type very well represented in the area west of the mesa and with many examples on the top of the plateau. The purpose of the excavation was to determine the use of these towers. While certain of these towers were probably used as lookouts, the majority served a different purpose. After the excavation Fewkes believed that Cedar Tree Tower was a ceremonial building above ground.

K. Oak Tree House

Fewkes' last field work of the 1920 field season was at Oak Tree House, which he had already cleaned and repaired in 1915. In the process of excavation of this cliff dwelling, many interesting specimens and several human skeletons in a good state of preservation were unearthed. [21]

L. Far View Tower

In May and June, 1921, Fewkes was again in Mesa Verde for a brief season of field work financed with a small allotment from the Bureau of American Ethnology.

The Mummy Lake cluster of mounds was selected as site for field operations. Far View Tower, under a conspicuous and centrally placed mound not far from Far View House, was uncovered. This tower, like Cedar Tree Tower, "was devoted to some archaic cult, like fire worship," wrote Fewkes.

M. Painted Kiva House

He also excavated Painted Kiva House, a small cliff ruin situated a short distance north of Cedar Tree Tower, under the rim of the west side of Soda Canyon. Its approaches from the mesa were very precipitous and it became necessary to construct four ladders and improve the trail to enable visitors to see it. Many specimens were found in the rear chambers of this ruin.

Mummy House, a ruin located almost directly under Sun Temple, was cleaned out but not repaired. Willow Tree House, above it, was practically inaccessible. Ladders were put in place connecting the trail up the canyon with Mummy House. [22]

N. Pipe Shrine House (Mummy Lake Group)

With small allotments from the Bureau of American Ethnology, Fewkes undertook another brief seasonal archeological investigation from May to August, 1922. He was assisted by W. C. McKern and L, H. Carter. One mound of the Mummy Lake group was chosen for excavation, located about 100 feet to the south of Far View House. This mound was covered by a dense growth of vegetation. Complete excavation revealed what appeared to be a ceremonial building, Pipe Shrine House.

O. One Clan House (Mummy Lake Group)

One mound south of Far View House was completely excavated and called One Clan House by Fewkes because it contained a central kiva surrounded by low walls. A well-worn trail, probably built by the Indians originally, connected Far View House, Pipe Shrine House, and One Clan House with Spruce Tree House. It was formerly used by early tourists who visited the ruins on horseback before the construction of roads.

P. Megalithic House (Mummy Lake Group)

Several mounds in the Mummy Lake area remained unexcavated, but their superficial appearance indicated types of ruins somewhat different from those already uncovered. One of the most unusual mounds, lying a few hundred feet north of the lake, was excavated. Because of the large stones used in the walls, this ruin was called Megalithic House. Numerous artifacts were collected from this ruin. [23]

Fewkes' field operations of 1922 were his last archeological work in Mesa Verde National Park. With small and irregular allotments of money, he was able to carry on a considerable amount of excavation and repair work since 1907. While a fairly large number of ruins were excavated and repaired, there were still hundreds of others of all types in the park that had never been opened. His main archeological efforts centered around the area in which lies Spruce Tree House, Cliff Palace, Sun Temple, Square Tower House, Balcony House, Oak Tree House, and New Fire Temple. This area, of easy access from Spruce Tree House, was not only the most populous section of the park in prehistoric times but also contained the largest number of culture types. Fewkes realized that there was an almost endless amount of work to be done in the park and to make any progress on this gigantic undertaking a generous appropriation had to be made every year.