Mesa Verde Administrative History

A. Roads and Trails

1. Access needs

After the park was established, the principal administrative necessities were the protection of the ruins and the improvement of trails in order to make the park more accessible to the public. Before the construction of park roads, at least two routes were feasible to reach the ruins from the town of Mancos. One could drive down Mancos Canyon at a point not far from the mouth of Webber Canyon and from there proceed on horseback along an Indian trail to the mouth of Cliff Canyon, and from there up to the top of the plateau to a point from which the principal ruins of the Chapin Mesa could be easily reached. One could also drive west from Mancos by the Cortéz road to the top of the divide between the Mancos and Montezuma valleys, and, turning to the left there, pass around south of the base of Point Lookout, beyond which vehicles could no longer be used. From there one had to proceed on horseback or foot by a trail leading up through a gap in the rim of the mesa to the top of the plateau at the head of Prater Canyon. From there it was from three to four hours ride over an almost level mesa top to Spruce Tree House, from which Cliff Palace and Balcony House could be reached in a half hour's ride.

This last route was considered by Dr. Hewett to be the most feasible one for a wagon road. Its last part, that from Mancos to the base of Point Lookout, would require no expenditure by the government since a great part of it was already a county road, and doubtless all that part leading up to the park line would be built and maintained by Montezuma County. That part of the road on top of the mesa would be very inexpensive since it was on an almost level table land, would pass around the heads of the canyons, and then along the top of the plain to Spruce Tree House. No canyons would have to be crossed and no bridges built. It was recognized that the expensive part of the road would be from the base of Point Lookout to the top of the mesa. The elevation to be overcome at Point Lookout was not known, but Surveyor George Mills, who ran the Ute Reservation boundary line, considered Hewett's route the most practical for a wagon road to the ruins. [1]

During his trip to the park in 1906, Acting Superintendent Leonard made several observations about the existing trails leading to the ruins. From the top of the mesa to Spruce Tree House, about eight miles distant, there was a pony trail, nearly level all the way. Thick forest of cedar and piñon and their branches were for a great distance interlaced over the trail, "making travel on horseback very disagreeable, one having to dodge the branches constantly." From Spruce Tree House to Balcony House and Cliff Palace, a distance of about four miles, there was also a pony trail two or three feet wide, but rougher. [2]

Acting Superintendent Werner favored the route for a wagon road suggested by Hewett and Mills, but went further and recommended a road on top of the mesa to connect most of the ruins. This road, down the edge of Spruce Tree and Navajo Canyons, would connect Spruce Tree House, Little Long House, Square Tower House, Casa Colorado, then across to Cliff Palace and Balcony House in Soda Canyon. [3]

No great number of visitors to Mesa Verde was to be expected until the park was made accessible by proper roads and trails. In order to prepare for travel during the season of 1908, the principal road trail leading to the ruins was repaired and improved. If the park was ever to fulfill the purposes for which it was created, informed Superintendent Randolph in his first annual report, it was absolutely necessary to build a road for carriages and other vehicles from the park boundary on the north to the principal ruins. Comparatively few travelers, he noted, were willing to undertake the long and difficult horseback ride, up a steep and dangerous trail, to reach the ruins. No matter how great might be their interest in the remarkable ruins of antiquity, they did not feel like undergoing the hardships and expense which had to be incurred to reach them. Because of lack of a suitable road, the expense of conducting the excavations, developing the water supply, and improvements of every kind, was very high. All supplies, tools, and materials had to be transported by means of pack animals. [4]

In the fall of 1907 Surveyor Mills, under contract with the Department, started to survey a practical route for a wagon road from the northern boundary of the park through the reservation and a portion of the 5-mile strip to the Spruce Tree House. The line of survey, completed in the spring of 1908, was along the center of the roadway, tied to section corners, when they were found, within half a mile of the section crossing or township line. It had sections at every 100 feet properly marked with numbered wooden pegs. Station 0 of the survey was located at Windy Point, atop the high ridge directly below Point Lookout, and from that point moved westward. [5]

2. Wagon road and trails

C. B. Kelly, of Mancos, was contracted by Superintendent Randolph to build the wagon road. By the fall of 1908, six miles of carriage road following the Mills survey had been constructed north from near the northern rim of Spruce Tree House up to the top of Chapin Mesa. This portion of road was inexpensive and easily constructed since it passed through the almost level plateau. The principal work consisted of removing from the roadway the piñon and cedar trees with which the mesa top was covered, and doing a small amount of grading. To facilitate construction of this portion of the wagon road, and to transport materials and supplies to Spruce Tree Camp,

a wagon was disassembled at the park's small frame storehouse at the foot of Frink's trail ascending the abrupt north rim of the mesa, packed up the trail to road terminus at the head of Chapin Mesa, and reassembled there.

Subsequently, materials and supplies destined to Spruce Tree Camp, both for the park, for Dr. Fewkes' excavation camp, and for Charles Kelly, principal guide and packer, were transported from Mancos, Colorado, by wagon to the storehouse at the foot of the mesa; then the driven stock was used as pack animals for the trail ascent to the north tip of Chapin Mesa where wagon transport was again available for the 6-mile downgrade haul to Spruce Tree Camp. When not in use, the wagon and harness were regularly left at the north terminus of this Chapin Mesa road. [6

Also completed by the fall of 1908 was the portion of the road from the foot of the mesa up the west side of Point Lookout. Work continued during 1909 on the Point Lookout grade and by July 1911, three and one-half miles had been completed to the head of Morfield Canyon. By September, the government had completed a road from Station 0, on the north boundary of the park, to the head of School Section Canyon, a total distance of approximately seven miles from Point Lookout. This road, while not yet formally opened to tourist travel, was passable by wagon and afforded a scenic view of striking beauty. There remained to be constructed a little more than six miles of road to connect it with that portion of the road built northward from Spruce Tree Camp along Chapin Mesa. This break in the road was located nearly in the center of the wagon road route. [7]

Under Randolph, a trail system was also finished connecting Spruce Tree House, Cliff Palace, Square Tower House, and Balcony House. However, he suggested another carriage road wholly upon the mesa, touching the points of greatest scenic and historic interest. Because of the great depth of the canyons cutting the mesa from north to south, Randolph wrote, the expense of building a road to some of the most interesting ruins in the western part of the park was too great to be undertaken at the time. But trails could be built from Spruce Tree House to the important ruins of Garfield (Rock) Canyon and its tributaries, and bring them within four hours' ride of the former ruin. [8]

Heavy rains caused great damage to the constructed sections of the wagon road, and more particularly to those portions cut into the shale and soft soil on the more precipitous slopes of the mesa. Heavy slides of earth blocked the road at different places and huge boulders, falling from the heights above in some instances carried away parts of the road bed. Because of the condition of the roads and trails, it took an entire day to travel from Mancos to the ruins. Feed for the horses, water bags and food had to be carried on each trip. [9]

It was utterly impossible to promote heavy tourist travel to the ruins under those circumstances. The Denver and Rio Grande Railroad had tentatively promised that excursion rates to the park would be made as soon as the main wagon road was completed and the running of excursion trains thereby justified. There was already talk about having adequate roads in the park to permit automobile traffic. [10]

There was some pessimism also about the worthiness of the road in progress and the future development of the park. During the first conference at Yellowstone of departmental officials and other persons interested in the development and administration of the national parks, R. B. Marshall, Chief Geographer of the Geological Survey, read the following speech about Mesa Verde:

There is nothing in this park to make it of national importance save the cliff dwellings. There is no opportunity for camping; the scenery is common to many of the Western States and needs no protection. The inaccessibility of the park, the long distance, and the miserable railroad accommodations make it, I think, out of the question to make this park popular to any degree in comparison with the other parks. The road which is under construction, particularly along the north face of the cliff, although of scenic value, is in the worst place possible to maintain it. It will, I estimate, require $50,000 to put these few miles in good order, and because of the slide rock and other material through which it passes that $10,000 a year will be none too much to keep it in safe condition.

There is practically no water in the park, and until water can be found the department is taking a big chance of wasting public money in building roads and accommodations where they may not be used by the public on account of lack of water.... [11]

Road construction continued at a rapid pace. The section of the road from the head of Morfield Canyon under the Knife Edge and over the ridge to the head of Moccasin Canyon was completed in 1911. This section of the road was referred to as the "Decker Road," since it was constructed by Nathaniel A. Decker, a contractor from Mancos. [12]

In July 1912 a road was completed from the north boundary down the east side of the ridge extending north from under Point Lookout to connect with the Mancos-Cortéz road, seven and one-half miles west of Mancos. [13]

Also, in 1912, construction was undertaken of the remaining six-plus miles of road between the head of Moccasin Canyon and the west fork of Little Soda Canyon. This section of the road was completed by the middle of 1913, and on July 13, Jose R. Córdova, of Bloomfield, New Mexico, drove the first 4-horse wagon load of 13 visitors over the new carriage road to the rimrock campsite overlooking the head of Spruce Tree Canyon. [14] On November 17, Superintendent Shoemaker wrote: "Since last August, by actual count, there have been sixty vehicles, two and four-horse teams, over the roads and into the first ruins." [15]

3. Morfield Road automobile traffic

Before the completion of the wagon road, Superintendent Shoemaker had proposed a by-pass road to abandon about five miles of the former which had very steep grades and was exceedingly dangerous on account of the overhanging rim rock and the steepness of the hill on which it was built. This meant that the scenic Knife Edge Road would be abandoned. The by-pass road, started in 1913, would leave the park road at the head of Morfield Canyon, run south for four miles, then cross the divide into Prater Canyon, then climb up out of Prater Canyon and meet the park road at the head of Moccasin Canyon, a total distance of nine miles. This was the so-called "Spencer Road," from the name of the contractor, George Spencer, of Mancos. [16]

Morfield Canyon Road would make travel to the park safer, but the business interests of Mancos did not favor the by-pass. A committee was appointed by the Mancos Commercial Club to investigate the needs and changes in the existing road to the park. In a report sent to the Secretary, the committee members stated that the greatest need of the park was the completion of an adequate highway. Upon examination, they found that the appropriation of 1913 had been spent on the Morfield Canyon Road that made a detour of approximately nine miles from the Mills survey, thereby increasing the distance that visitors had to travel to reach the ruins by more than six miles. Of these nine miles of new road, only six were completed, and it would require the expenditure of a large amount of money and many weeks of work to finish the road. This new road, they argued, had no practical value as a scenic route. As a park highway it was not desirable because it followed "a dreary route along the courses of the canyons." The old road—Knife Edge—following Mills' survey, on the other hand, was an ideal parkway, and its value as a scenic route was unsurpassed. [17]

About the same time that the Mancos Commercial Club was complaining about the new road, Congressman Taylor called the attention of the Secretary to complaints from visitors to Mesa Verde. Their main grievance was that it was an unjust hardship to prohibit travelers from entering the park in automobiles. Several of the prominent citizens of Cortéz and Mancos had written Taylor about this matter. Superintendent Rickner favored the use of automobiles since the roads were in suitable condition. The Secretary answered Taylor that cars would be allowed as soon as the Morfield Canyon Road was completed. On May 25, 1914, Rickner informed the Secretary that the road was ready. [18]

In preparation for the use of automobiles, the different portions of the main road were improved. The Decker Road was cleared and graded, but it was still very narrow and had some very steep grades. Others were widened and the curves straightened as much as the means at hand allowed.

On May 28, Superintendent Rickner made the first trial trip with automobiles to the park. It was successful in every way and demonstrated that cars could safely make the trip. Six cars—two Studebakers, two Fords, one Hupmobile, and one Reo—with 25 persons, went over the road from Mancos to Spruce Tree Camp using the Morfield-Prater Canyon by-pass. As frequent stops were made along the way to take pictures, no time was recorded for the incoming run, but the cars made the return trip in three hours. [19]

As other car owners and tourists were anxious to make the trip by auto, Rickner wanted to open the park to automobile travel as soon as possible. Team owners and liverymen feared that admission of autos would cause a decrease in the travel by horse power, hence their strong opposition to automobiles. A Mr. A. B. Hardin was a sort of spokesman for the group and wrote to the Secretary about the subject. [20]

Park roads, to be kept in good shape, had to be dragged quite often. Portions of the road became filled with earth and boulders, making travel impossible, and putting all park people to work. Teams and saddle horses passing over the roads during a rain, or immediately after, cut up the roads very badly. In muddy places the wheels sank half way to the hubs. As a protection, all travel was prohibited over the park roads when they were wet or muddy; driving of loose stock in herds of more than 15 head was also prohibited. [21]

June 20 was the day set for opening the park to automobile travel with formal opening and celebration to be held on July 4. [22]

Autos and motorcycles were admitted to the park and were allowed to make trips to the ruins via Morfield-Prater Canyon by-pass. A fee of $1.00 was charged for private automobiles for one trip or $5.00 for a season privilege; the season for motor vehicles was from May to November 1. The use of automobiles was governed by a set of regulations adapted from those of Sequoia National Park. [23]

A new road, to replace the old trails from Spruce Tree Camp to Cliff Palace, Balcony House, and Peabody House, was cleared of trees and brush and partially graded, and while a great deal of work was needed on this road, automobiles made the trip to all the important ruins, doing away with the necessity of taking saddle animals into the park.

The Knife Edge Road, more scenic and over six miles shorter than the Morfield-Prater Canyon Road, was repaired and continued to be used by the horse-drawn vehicles and saddle horses. [24]

In July, 66 persons registered at Spruce Tree Camp, and made the road trip as follows:

After the introduction of automobiles, tourists began to crowd into the park's limited facilities; the machines made good roads essential. By 1916 automobiles were used by most of the visitors, though the horse still made the trip; some parties on horseback liked to follow the more romantic trails instead of the road. From July 1, 1915, to July 1, 1916, the number of visitors registering at Spruce Tree Camp was 1,170, almost double the number of the previous year. The opening of the road from Denver to the southern part of the state had brought many automobile parties from the East, and as this rough road became better, it was expected that many parties from eastern points would make the trip. Travel in the park, of course, depended on the conditions of the roads. [26]

4. Point Lookout roads

While the Morfield-Prater Canyon Road was used as the automobile by-pass route, Superintendent Rickner requested funds to maintain the Knife Edge Road in order to eliminate the long drive down Morfield and the steep three-mile grade out of Prater Canyon to the head of Moccasin Canyon. He thought the Knife Edge was too valuable as a scenic route to be abandoned. [27]

With the elimination of the Knife Edge Road, attention shifted to the Point Lookout grade. Built at a considerable expense, the portion of the road that passed west of Point Lookout followed the side of a clay erosion bank several hundred feet high, where according to all indications the erosion was more rapid than at any other place in the mesa. Under Point Lookout, the road was cut out of a loose shale, and as the hillside was very abrupt, the cut was deep. Dry weather loosened the shale, and a high wind brought it down into the road. Rain loosened it also, and a shower did the same. In fact, it was constantly moving downward, causing the need for daily repairs. When one of the big overhanging rocks did fall, great damage was done to the road. So far the park had been very fortunate, but if the road was kept up for travel, it was only a matter of time until some car or wagon would be caught in a big slide.

From the top of the mesa, the road continued on the outer side of the cliff that was an even more dangerous road than the portion under Point Lookout. In 1914, a rock-slide carried the entire road bed away for several rods. This section of the road was also in the shale, the dangerous part with very threatening rocks overhanging.

To go through the Point Lookout section of the road, noted a distinguished park visitor, was a nerve-wracking experience:

When we got about half way up the ascent, we met a man driving a herd of perhaps 50 head of stock down the same road. The road was entirely too narrow for a man to attempt to drive his stock, which were of course somewhat wild, past the three autos which were transporting our party. There was nothing for him to do except to turn around, drive his stock to the top of the mesa again, and wait till our autos had reached the summit before making any further attempt to drive them down.

It was quite evident that as long as grazing was permitted on top of the mesa, a dual system of roads had to be provided by the park.

Thus a new road was proposed to ascend the mesa southeast of Point Lookout which would avoid the hazards of the other road and afford a route which would apparently cost considerably less to maintain. The proposed route was through a country covered by a growth of juniper, piñon and oak brush, all of which were a protection to the road. There were no overhanging rocks to come down, and the roots of the growth held the earth in place. This road would encounter no shale, and would reach the top of the mesa with a grade of no more than 6 percent.

It was also suggested that the portion of the road west of Point Lookout could be maintained at a comparatively slight expense as a trail for driving stock up and down the mesa, and the stock should be forbidden on the new road. [28]

Meanwhile, all the park roads were improved and kept in shape for automobile travel. Under Point Lookout, however, the road was a real problem due to heavy rains. These washed down earth and stones and often huge boulders that greatly damaged the roadbed. It required the use of gunpowder to remove them. [29]

It became necessary in 1916 to install a telephone control system at the Point Lookout grade, making this section of the highway a one-way road. The grade was so steep, the road too narrow and the curves too sharp to permit its use by automobiles going both ways at the same time. This arrangement was very cumbersome. At the foot of the hill, directly under Point Lookout, was a telephone box (No. 5), and the following sign: "Stop: All persons are forbidden passing this point without first calling the Superintendent's office, Phone No. 11." At the top of the hill there was a similar sign and another telephone box (No. 4). Anyone calling in at box 5, on his way into the park, was told whether he could proceed or not. If someone had already called in at the top of the hill (box 4), on his way out of the park, he was given the right of way, and the car at box 5 had to wait until the other car arrived at the foot of the hill and called up the office at Mancos to tell that he was off the road. Then the road was given to the car waiting at the foot of the hill and it was allowed to ascend the grade, calling at box 4. This was required of all passers, and saved the danger of two cars meeting on the grade. [30]

Road construction was a problem in all parks. Yosemite and Yellowstone were the only parks with more than a few miles of good roads. One problem with road construction was that Congress voted money in irregular driblets and the parks could build only piecemeal stretches, without any comprehensive plan. It meant poor and in the long run really expensive roads. [31]

In his annual report of 1917 Director Mather stated that besides funds for excavation of more ruins and repairs of cliff dwellings, the other greater need of Mesa Verde was a new road for ascending the mesa. In rainy weather, he wrote, the road around Point Lookout was impassable. Rocks and debris from the mountain above were constantly sliding into the middle of the road. Engineers believed that it would never be possible to prevent blocking of the road by debris, and that as long as it was used, the cost of maintaining the park road system would be high; that by building a new road eliminating this ascent to Point Lookout, the cost of maintaining the park road system could be cut at least by one-half or perhaps three-fourths.

A new road to ascend the Mesa Verde from the east side of Point Lookout was authorized by Congress in 1917 and completed during the summer of 1919. It left the Mancos-Cortéz highway, passed along the eastern side of Point Lookout, and ascended the mesa by easy grades on the Mancos Valley side of the hill. Besides being free from the dangers of the old road, it gave the tourist a grand view of the Mancos Valley backed by the La Plata Range of mountains. Popularly referred to as the "switchback," this new scenic entrance road crossed the "saddle" (Nusbaum Cut) below Point Lookout and joined the old road at the head of Morfield Canyon. Although frequent and heavy rains made repair work on the old road almost constant during the 1919 season, it was kept open to travel, most of the cars going into the park one way and returning by the other. This choice of roads, giving a different route each way, gave great satisfaction to tourists. Ascending the mesa by the old road gave a grand view of the country to the west and north, and the descent by the new road showed the Mancos Valley and the mountains to great advantage. The old road continued to be controlled by telephone. It was hoped that these routes could be used every year. In this connection, Director Mather said: "It ought to be our policy to maintain the old Point Lookout road in good repair if funds can be made available for the necessary work of upkeep of the highway and control the menacing slide." This section of the road was not abandoned until the construction of the present Point Lookout grade in the late 1920's. [32]

Automobiles certainly changed the pattern of travel. By 1918 very few horse-drawn vehicles entered the park. The long, hard drive with team was now reduced to a few hours run with the car, and many parties made the trip to the park, visited a few of the principal ruins, and returned in one day. A larger number of cars carried camping outfits than in former years, and a smaller number of tourists came in by rail. As time passed, a larger number of cars and travelers came from distant states, including New Jersey and New York. [33]

For some unknown reasons, wrote Superintendent Rickner, the majority of tourists came to Mesa Verde with the idea that it was a desert land, and that the journey was hard and uninteresting, over an arid, barren country, with the ruins of the cliff dwellers the only points of interest. This erroneous idea prevented many from making the trip to the park, but, as more people were coming in each year, this false view was being gradually corrected. After a visit to the park all visitors carried away memories of a wonderful and beautiful journey. Once on the park road, the traveler turned his back on all signs of the improvements of civilization. He stepped at once into an unbroken wilderness where the road on which he was traveling was the only mark of man's handiwork.

As the road passed around the face of the cliff, noted Rickner, one looked across the broad

Montezuma Valley to the Blue Mountains in Utah, the Sierra La Salle, still more distant, and old Ute Peak in the middle distance. Looking backward one sees the snowcapped Rico Mountains and Lone Dome, not unlike an Egyptian pyramid on a mighty scale. From this vantage point one's gaze travels across space into four States, and the Four Corners can be seen, the only place where four States meet in one common point of boundary.

The new road takes one through forests of pinyon and juniper with open glades covered with silvery sage brush. Winding about tree-covered knolls, it ascends the mesa by a zigzag way, sometimes through tree-covered spaces and again out into the open hillside. From this road one sees the grand old La Plata Mountains with Hesperus, "the farthest west," dominating all, snow-tipped and rugged, lifting its scarred head to a height of over 13,000 feet. Nestled at the foot of the range is the town of Mancos, looking, from this distance, like a group of tiny dots upon a broad expanse of green. After climbing the mesa and passing over the Saddle, this road joins the old road at Station 64 at the head of Morefield Canyon.

From Station 64, the road leads down beautiful Morefield Canyon, its floor a carpet of green and bounded on either side by a rocky ridge that rises higher as one goes down. Across the ridge dividing this valley from Prater Canyon the road passes in easy grades to the floor of Prater, another grassy valley of picturesque beauty. Up the west side of Prater the road ascends to the head of Moccasin Canyon, and here one looks off over the edge of the mesa and sees again the Montezuma Valley and the mountain ranges bounding it. From here the road winds along the northern edge of the mesa, heading one canyon after another until, passing between Soda and Navajo Canyons, it reaches the head of Chapin Mesa. From these higher levels one looks away to the southward for many miles to the Carriso and Luka Chukai Mountain ranges, soft and blue in the distance, barely distinguishable from the sky. In the middle distance Shiprock stands out alone, looking like some monster ship upon an ocean of blue.

Down the crest of Chapin Mesa the visitor is carried past Far View House and Mummy Lake to Spruce Tree Camp and dinner. No one can make this drive and not be filled with admiration and wonder. If this is desert, then a desert is a thing of beauty, and something well worth a long journey to see and feel. [34]

5. Future roads

While the new portion of the entrance road was being constructed, other park roads and trails were opened, and existing ones improved. The roads from Spruce Tree Camp to the different ruins were widened and in many places regraded. A short road was constructed from Sun Temple to a spectacular point on the rim of one of the nearby canyons, thus affording a most unusual view of the ruins, the canyon, and the forests. Three trails were built, all filling long-felt needs of the visitor who delighted in exploring the region. One trail led from Cliff Palace to Community House in Cliff Canyon. A trail to Square Tower House, which passed over a sloping ledge that projected over the canyon, was blasted out and a strong iron railing was placed along the outer edge to protect the tourist and open this interesting ruin to all. Up to this time, one desiring to visit this ruin could only do so by holding to a strong rope anchored above, while passing across this dangerous place. Another trail was located and cleared around the southern end of Chapin Mesa, by way of Navaho, Soda, and Cliff Canyons, to Inspiration Point. Still another one was being located from Spruce Tree Camp to the Rock Springs section, in the western part of the park. [35]

Several other important roads were suggested by Superintendent Rickner during this period. He suggested a road from Station 64, at the head of Morfield Canyon, to the top of Point Lookout. This would be a side trip, and would be taken by all, either on entering the park or on the return. The level space on the very outmost point of the hill would provide ample space for cars to turn, and the view obtained in all directions would be unobstructed. Many tourists left their cars at Station 64 and walked the short distance to the summit, "and no one should leave the park without having seen the view from this point." [36]

Now that there was fairly convenient and safe access to the park, and other urgent improvements in the highway system had been completed, park officials were certainly justified in planning further development of the park by road extensions. The unique topography of the park and the scenic features of the Mesa Verde suggested two new highway routes if there had not been more prehistoric structures worthy of being made accessible to the public. However, both of these routes would also open exceedingly worthwhile exhibits of ancient architecture. Rickner explained both routes in his annual report of 1919:

A great many suggestions for the improvement of the park could be proposed, but as it will take years of well-directed labor and great expense to bring all the beauties and wonders of antiquity a condition where they can be enjoyed only the most pressing needs will at present be considered.

Extension of the present road system and restoration of more of the ruins are among the most needed improvements. A road from Spruce Tree Camp to the southern boundary of the park to connect with the Cortéz-Shiprock road, shortening the distance from the camp to Shiprock by about 76 miles, would be of great benefit to tourists who visit the park in automobiles. Most of the visitors to the park go from here to Shiprock and to do so have to return to the Mancos-Cortéz highway, thence to Cortéz, and on to Shiprock, a long distance, while the proposed road would be direct. For visitors from the west it would be of the same benefit.

A road from the present road in the park at a point near the head of Navajo Canyon, along the northern edge of Mesa Verde to Wetherill Mesa, down this mesa to Rock Springs and the many ruins in that vicinity, would open up a great deal more of the park to visitors. The ruins in the Rock Springs country are very interesting, some of them very large. This road would make it possible for tourists to visit and explore all the finest ruins in the park, many of which are now beyond the reach of any but the hardiest travelers. Another road that should be constructed at an early date is a short piece of road from Station 64, at the head of Morefield Canyon, to the summit of Point Lookout. The distance would be little more than a mile, and the view obtained from the point would compensate for many times the distance. It would be a side trip that would be taken by all, for the view embraces the mountain region in every direction.

In connection with the suggested roads, the Director wrote:

Both of these roads should be built in the very early future, and I am so thoroughly convinced of their importance in the advancement of interest in Mesa Verde Park that I am preparing estimates for funds to cover grading them next year. A third road that should be built soon is a short lateral to the summit of Point Lookout. It would be about one mile in length.

With or without these new roads, the trip to and through mesa Verde Park is one that every American should take. The scenic railroad approaches cannot be surpassed in this or any other country, and the automobile highways leading to the park already built or in course of construction are equally impressive. The natural features of the park itself are distinctively scenic, and, of course, it is remarkably unique because of its ancient buildings and relics of a past civilization. Everything about the Mesa Verde combines to make it one of our finest parks, and hence worthy of the best attention of the Federal Government. [37]

B. Ranger Services

1. First rangers

Ranger services in Mesa Verde National Park were inaugurated in May of 1908 by Major Randolph, first regularly appointed superintendent. He formally took charge of the park on August 31, 1907. After inspecting the park he requested and was granted sufficient appropriations to employ one permanent ranger. He recommended Charles B. Kelly, of Mancos, the same man who received the first contract for building the wagon road to the park. According to Randolph, Kelly was a man of ability and integrity, and was "a loyal Republican, and had the support of the people of this county—Montezuma." [1]

Kelly was the best known and most competent guide in the Mancos area and owned an outfitting business. He had been packing visitors into Mesa Verde for about 15 years. For the accommodation of the visitors he brought to Mesa Verde, he had constructed a two-room log cabin on the rim of Spruce Tree Canyon, just behind the location of the present day museum. He held the position of Park Ranger until March 31, 1911. [2]

In May 1908 Randolph requested and was allowed the funds to employ two additional rangers to assist in the care of the park and serve as guides to travelers during the tourist season. Two other men from Mancos—Newton W. Samson and James A. Frink—were selected as the first seasonal park rangers. Besides the rangers, those who had transportation concessions were authorized to guide visitors through the ruins. [3]

Ranger-guided trips were provided for by the rules and regulations of the park, dated March 19, 1908:

Persons bearing archaeological permits from the Department may be permitted to enter the ruins unaccompanied after presenting their credentials to the Superintendent or other park officer. Persons without archeological permits who wish to visit and enter the ruins shall in all cases be accompanied by a park ranger or other person duly authorized by the Superintendent.

From 1908 on the Superintendent's monthly reports referred to the rangers, especially those employed for the summer season, guiding the tourists through the ruins. Their principal duties were stated to be to police the park and act as guides. With the exception of one seasonal ranger—Rosce C. Husted—all the rangers selected, seasonal and permanent, between 1907 and 1921, were local men from Mancos and a few from Durango. Most of them were cattlemen. The Frinks—father and son—were rangers in 1909 and 1910. They had established a trail leading to the park over the north rim, for moving cattle into the area. After the park was set aside they held grazing leases; Frink Trail is still visible and appears in the park topographical maps prepared by the Geological Survey. [4]

In 1911 Dr. Hewett complained that the Park Ranger saw very little of the park, his principal business being that of transporting travelers from Mancos to the ruins. "I would recommend," Hewett wrote, "that the business of transportation of passengers be conducted entirely by persons not connected in any way with the administration of the park." [5]

Hewett's reference to the Park Ranger was Charles F. Kelly. Under Randolph, Kelly was devoting part of his time to "conduct an outfit business and livery stable at Mancos," and hiring himself to persons as a guide, in violation of the Department's rules. [6]

In 1916 Rickner requested an additional ranger to cope with the increase of travel; in the previous year he had to act as guide for often there were more parties than the rangers could handle. Ranger Fred Jeep's wife was forced to act as guide in several instances, when a number of private cars and camping parties came to the park at the same time. All the drivers of the "garage cars" of Mancos were official guides, and they guided the parties they took into the park. Rickner was reminded by Mr. Marshall, Superintendent of National Parks, that rangers were employed to do trail and road work when necessary, enforce the regulations for the government of the park, and aid and assist in its administration in every way, "and not to act as guides except in case of pressing necessity." He suggested that Rickner hire qualified persons who desired to guide parties through the ruins, with permits issued by the Department. [7]

In winter time, all that the two permanent rangers could do was patrol the north end of the park in snowshoes. One ranger stayed in the park with his family until the snow drove him out. [8]

2. Ranger Station

Since very early in the history of the park, it was recognized that the permanent presence of the rangers on the mesa was necessary for the proper protection of the ruins. In this connection Superintendent Randolph wrote in 1908:

It is recommended that a house be constructed at Spruce Tree House so that a custodian may reside permanently near the ruins, and thus be enabled to give closer attention to their care, as well as to the comfort and convenience of travelers. Such a house can here be built most economically of stone. The greater part of the necessary material can be obtained on the ground. [9]

Next year he wrote again:

On account of the large amount of money that has been spent on the excavation and repair of ruins, it is now necessary that there be a resident custodian in the park during all except the coldest winter months. It is therefore recommended that the head ranger be provided with a suitable cabin and required to live at Spruce Tree House for nine months in the year until the carriage road is completed, after which he should remain there all the year around. Such a ranger should be paid not less than $90 per month. There should be another regular ranger at a salary of $75 per month to look after stock, guard the ruins from vandalism, and serve as a guide for travelers. [10]

In 1911 the Secretary acknowledged that experience in the administration of the park had demonstrated the necessity of having a permanent park ranger on duty in the park, in the vicinity of Spruce Tree House and Cliff Palace, during the tourist season; that he had to live in the park permanently as soon as proper accommodations for housing could be supplied by the Department. [11]

What the rangers used around 1913 as a headquarters station, at Spruce Tree Camp, was a 12 by 18 feet frame shack of boards and tar paper. At this time the other buildings in the park were as follows: a government cabin at the head of Morfield Canyon, a meat house at Cliff Palace, a frame shack at the foot of Frink Trail, a frame cottage at Red Spruce Canyon, a frame barn at Red Spruce Station, and two windmills. [12]

Superintendent Shoemaker built a four-room cottage at Red Spruce Camp (School Section) as a house for the rangers employed in the park. Its location, however, was 12 miles from the ruins. During the summer season the work of the rangers was largely at the ruins, or near the entrance of the park, and the cottage was of no benefit. In the winter season heavy snows blocked this place up, and the only use of the cottage was as an occasional stopping place. [13]

After numerous requests and delays, finally, a new building for the use of the rangers was erected at Spruce Tree Camp in 1916. It was built of spruce logs with rough stone foundation. On the side overlooking the ruins of Spruce Tree House and the canyon there was "a broad piazza, and the building as a whole fits into the scene adding rather than detracting from the beauty of the spot." [14] No residence for the Superintendent nor park office was build until 1921.

C. Concession Services and Facilities

When Congress approved the act creating the park, the cliff dwellings were virtually inaccessible to the general public, except scientists interested in explorations, pot hunters, the cowboys of the mesas, and straggling tourists. Although many people knew of the existence of the cliff dwellings and their ancient inhabitants, only a comparatively small number had a definite notion as to the location of the area or any concrete idea of the features it contained. Southwestern Colorado was relatively isolated by the lack of good access roads through the mountains and deserts surrounding it, and word of its many features was only beginning to reach the outside world.

Only a small hardy lot ventured to see the ruins. It required two days traveling south by railway from Denver to Mancos, the nearest point to the park. At Mancos, C. B. Kelly, the proprietor of a stable personally conducted the traveler and provided team, food and lodging for the trip, which required three days to make—one day to go, one at the ruins and one day returning. Kelly charged $15.00 per person, or $12.50 when there were two or more persons. The first 15 miles to the foot of the Mesa Verde was covered by wagon, and the last ten on horseback; the time required to reach the ruins was approximately five and one-half hours—two and a half by wagon and three on horseback. Kelly had a cabin near Spruce Tree House, on the southern part of Chapin Mesa, where sleeping accommodations were provided.

Balcony House, Spruce Tree House and Cliff Palace were the ruins that tourists usually visited. Tourists were recommended to wear rough clothes and heavy shoes, as climbing about the ruins was very hard on wearing apparel. At the mesa the food was plain, the accommodations primitive, but there was no hardship for the spirited traveler. The trip gave him an opportunity to test the simple life, "with plenty of rough and heavy climbing thrown in." [1]

In 1908, when Congress had not as yet passed a law authorizing the Department of the Interior to provide visitor services, Superintendent Randolph requested authority to permit park ranger Kelly to put up tents in the park during the travel season because there were no accommodations available on the mesa. A camping area had already been designated for travelers. [2]

Randolph's request was denied because Kelly was a government employee. In 1911 the Superintendent was authorized to employ a temporary ranger for the tourist season, April through September. This ranger, the instructions read, should be a married man whose wife could cook and provide for tourists in the park; she was to be granted formal permission to provide meals to visitors in the park at a reasonable compensation. [3]

On March 31, 1911, Wesley A. Martin was appointed temporary ranger and his wife, Emma Martin, was given the first concession to "furnish meals and sleeping quarters to persons desiring to secure such accommodations and service within the metes and bounds of the Mesa Verde National Park." She was authorized to charge $.75 for meals and $.50 for sleeping quarters. [4] Visitors were housed in tents and meals were "good and homelike." Mrs. Martin owned most of the tents, all the bedding, and camp equipment used. She could accommodate 12 persons at one time in the Camp at Spruce Tree. [5]

Mrs. Martin's concession lasted until 1912. In 1913 Mr. A. J. Ames had the concession for maintaining and managing a camp for tourists. [6]

Ranger Kelly resigned in 1911 for the purpose of operating again his Mancos livery stable and pack and saddle arrangement for visitors to the park. He was the only liveryman in Mancos, although Cortéz had a least two. [7] In 1913 Kelly was granted the first concession for outfitting and transporting visitors to the park, something that he had been doing since the 1890s. He was given the privilege with the understanding that it was not an exclusive one. Kelly used one four- and one three-seated vehicle and five saddle and pack horses. [8] After the opening of the wagon road in the summer of 1913, and the admission of cars in 1914, Kelly went into partnership with a man named French to operate the Kelly-French Stage, carrying visitors from the railroad at Mancos to Spruce Tree Camp until 1920. [9]

In 1914 Superintendent Rickner informed the Secretary that as

conditions are at present, we may get some tourists, but only those deeply interested in antiquities will undergo the hardships of a trip to the Park, and the large majority of tourists will pass by a jaunt of such discomfort. The road to and through the Park is far from good, and makes the journey a tiresome one. This would not matter so much, and many would undertake the trip if there were rest and comfort at the journey's end, but add to the rigors of the road a camp without comforts, and camp fare, and we are virtually prohibiting all but the very hardy. It will be impossible to secure any one who will keep a good camp in the Park if they are forced to furnish their own equipment, nor could one really afford it. [10]

That same date he wrote a short letter to Congressmen Edward T. Taylor, of Colorado, who had recently visited the park:

As you are aware, we have been put off, and put off, from year to year until the improvement of the park has become a joke, and people here are skeptical about anything being done to make the park what it should be. [11]

Rickner sent the Secretary an application for the camping concession in Mesa Verde, stating that the party was reliable and would expend considerable in improving the facilities, provided the superintendent was able to put in a pump to bring water from Spruce Tree Spring to the camp. What Rickner did not tell the Secretary was that the applicant was his daughter, Oddie Jeep, wife of Fred Jeep, park ranger. She was given a permit to operate the camp from May 1, 1914 to May 1, 1915; she held the concession until 1929. During the travel season of 1915 Mrs. Jeep had good accommodations near Spruce Tree House for 30 persons, all comfortably provided with new tent bedrooms, and excellent beds. She charged $3.00 per day for all ordinary parties but had special rates for large groups. An added facility for travelers was a telephone line from the park office at Mancos to Spruce Tree Camp, which was operated only during the travel season. [12]

Early in 1917 plans were prepared for building a hotel at Spruce Tree Camp. [13]

In the fall of 1917 Horace M. Albright, Field Assistant to Director Mather, visited Mesa Verde and suggested to Mrs. Jeep that each tent's equipment should contain, besides a bed, the following items: dresser, straight chair, washbowl and pitcher, a rocking chair, kerosene lamp, slop jar, drinking water pitcher, water glass, large rug, clothes tree or hooks with hangers for clothes, and the necessary towels, soap, etc. He also suggested the rearrangement of the tents, placing one row with the opening toward the canyon. Most of the above suggestions were followed by Mrs. Jeep and she was allowed to raise the rates for meals and accommodations. [14]

Apparently Albright's suggestions had been prompted by a report of Inspector John A. Hill, who also visited the park in the fall of 1917, and made the following unfavorable comments:

The camp outfit is very crude. They are building a new house 26x38 to be used as dining room, kitchen, lounge and washroom, which will make an improvement over the shack which they are using at the present time.

The grounds of the camp are littered with logs, brush, road making tools, etc.

The 14 tents are furnished with the minimum equipment: a clean bed, chair, washbowl and pitcher, small rug and a candle.

The Ranger Station, which is a two-room log house, is used as a bedroom for Mr. and Mrs. Jeep and as a laundry for the camping company and on the porch, lying in the open, are a great many curios taken from the ruins.

This is a family affair. The camp concessionaire being the wife of Ranger Jeep and a daughter of Supervisor Rickner. The meals are poor and the camp is more of a boarding house for road gangs who are served at the same time and in the same room with the guests, than a tent hotel for tourists. [15]

Improvements were made at Spruce Tree Camp in 1918. In his annual report Director Mather stated that the fiscal year was epochal in the history of Mesa Verde National Park. It had always ranked among the most important parks of the system, but it had now taken its place as one of the best improved reservations under the control of the National Park Service; that it boasted of almost every accommodation that any park offered for the traveling public except a hotel. [16]

Spruce Tree Camp, located on the west side of Spruce Tree Canyon, commanded a view of Spruce Tree House, one of the most visited ruins. The camp consisted of a building, referred to as a hotel, in which were located the dining and service rooms. Nearby, on the brink of the canyon, was a picturesque log cabin with broad plaza overlooking the old ruin, giving a magnificent view to the south. This building contained a restroom, with ample fireplace and a room devoted to the display of relics from the ruins in glass cases. Three rows of 29 floored tents, on terraces, one above the other, were provided for accommodation of visitors. The entire camp was electrically lighted and the power plant pumped the water of Spruce Tree spring into a stone water tower above the hotel. Cedar benches were placed about the camp for the convenience of visitors. Sheds protected automobiles from the weather. A campground just across the canyon was maintained, where parties could pitch their tents and enjoy the pleasure of camping out. On a rising ground above the camp was a new four-room cottage used as a Ranger Station. [17]

That Spruce Tree Camp had improved visitors facilities can be seen from the following report of an inspection made in 1918:

The service is first class in every respect, exceptional in fact, when the difficulties of transportation are considered. The sleeping accommodations are clean and comfortable.

The bedrooms are all located in tents 9 by 12 feet with board side walls up about four feet, and board floors, with rugs placed near beds. Clear cold spring water is supplied in each tent for bathing purposes. Pitchers and glasses are provided so that guests may obtain hot water from the main hotel building if desired. The dining room is in the main building, in which is located the office and registration facilities. The camp is in direct telephone connection with the railroad and the Superintendent's office in Mancos.

The meals served at this camp are worthy of special mention. The idea of the general quality of the service may be gained from the fact that fresh cream was served with the fruit and cereals. Fresh fruit was served as well. This is unusual, in a dry country so removed from rail transportation. The employees at the camp and throughout the park were competent and very courteous. Such little services as seeing that drinking water was available to returning hikers after visiting the cliff dwellings, etc., indicated a first class conception on the part of the management of what good hotel service is. [18]

D. Improvement of water resources

1. Scarcity of water

Water has been the life and death of Mesa Verde National Park. With the exception of the stream in Weber Canyon, the Mancos River is the only perennial stream that drains Mesa Verde. Except during and immediately after periods of precipitation, surface flow is very rare in the many canyons of the area. Springs and seeps are not numerous but do occur in some of the large canyons. [1]

Both Leonard and Werner noted in their 1906 and 1907 reports the great need for development of the scarce water resources of the park, but especially a spring near Spruce Tree House. In connection with the making of improvements in the park, Superintendent Randolph was informed that the Department had been

advised the urgent necessity of providing an adequate water supply for tourists, stock, and for parties engaged in road construction and other work in the park in the very near future. Considering the importance of this question of water supply during the coming season, and the impossibility of doing much construction work on the road now under survey before the close of the fiscal year, when the unexpended balances would lapse into the Treasury, it is suggested that you go over the ground carefully and investigate all possible sources which could be utilized in providing an adequate water supply in the park and the strip, and submit a report to the Department, including estimates and cost in each instance, together with your recommendations in the premises. The approximate location of wells, etc., should be indicated upon a map accompanying your report. [2]

In his first annual report of 1908, Randolph noted that the natural supply of water in the park was quite limited, and entirely insufficient for future use. Under the advice of a competent engineer and stone mason, he wrote, plans were prepared early in the year and submitted for improving and developing the water supply. Contracts were let for the building of a dam and spillway at the head of Spruce Tree Canyon to divert the rain waters which had up to that time run down the natural wash and flooded the spring, spoiling it for domestic use. In order to increase the supply of water for domestic purposes it was deemed advisable to conserve water by building cisterns just below the spring. These were included in the contract for the building of the dam and completed about the same time. A trench was constructed under a separate contract for the purpose of conveying the water from the spring to the cisterns, and to catch the seepage from the canyon walls. The supply of water provided by these improvements appeared to be ample for all requirements at that time. From the cisterns the water was carried up the long and steep trail to the campground. [3]

In order to provide water in the northern part of the park, near the road leading to the ruins, a well was sunk 30 feet at the head of Navajo Canyon, and a good supply of water obtained. Wells were also dug and windmills erected in Prater and Ruin Canyons, along the route of the proposed carriage road. These would supply the water needed during the building of the road, and for the travel that would subsequently pass to the ruins. [4

By the middle of 1911 the water supply at the government camp near the ruins was becoming of vital importance in connection with the general development of the park. The two springs in the vicinity—one at Spruce Tree House and the other at Balcony House—supplied very excellent water. Robert B. Marshall, Chief Geographer of the Geological Survey, made a personal examination of the water supply and judged that it would be inadequate to supply the greatly increased number of travelers which would be expected there upon completion of the main wagon road. The reservoir that was constructed at Spruce Tree House did not hold water for any length of time owing to the nature of the rock bottom, which permitted rapid seepage. He recommended that the Geological Survey make an examination and determine the possibility and feasibility of developing sufficient water supply by the ruins. [5]

During the progress of the road construction work, a well was sunk in Moccasin Canyon, "up to now supposed to be utterly dry, and very good water found at a depth of ten or twelve feet." This discovery, together with the supply developed from the government windmills constructed in Prater and Ruin Canyons, alleviated in great measure the inconveniences and hardships encountered in traversing the mesa on account of lack of water. [6]

2. Survey of water resources

On August 5, 1911, the Geological Survey was instructed to make an examination of the water supplies available in Mesa Verde National Park, and to report to the Department the result of the survey, together with the necessary recommendations for increasing the water resources if they were found to be inadequate. In response to this instruction, geologist W. C. Mendenhall was directed to make the required investigation. He visited the park on September 11 and prepared the first detailed report of the existing and future water resources of the area. [7]

According to Mendenhall, the geologic conditions which were the chief factors in producing the peculiar geography of the park affected very unfavorably the water supply of the higher portions of the disected mesa. Already some wells had been sunk and a water supply developed in the heads of several of the canyons near the north edge of the park, but the wells were located several miles from the important ruins. Practically all the canyons examined near the Mancos River were susceptible to producing water by means of sinking wells. In intermediate narrower sections of the canyons, where erosion had just cut through the capping sandstone and had not broadened the canyon in the underlying softer shale, development of wells might prove unsuccessful. Anyway, he wrote,

tourists will camp on the surfaces of the mesas and these consist everywhere of the porous sandstone into which the scanty rainfall of the region readily sinks, but will as readily be drained away by the numerous deep canyons which are never more than a mile from the traveler, even though he may be in the heart of the broadest of the most extensive mesa. The ribbon-like plateaus which lie between the canyons slope from 100 to 300 feet southward, so that their surface drainage is free, and storm waters therefore escape readily and little time is available for their absorption by the sponge-like sandstone immediately beneath the surface. It is little wonder, therefore, that practically no water is found on the surface of the mesa at any point except for brief periods immediately following heavy storms, when natural depressions may for a short time contain pools.

It was evident, asserted the geologist, that the cliffdwellers required water for their existence. Presumably their dwellings were so located that this necessity could easily be secured. Indeed, he observed, of each of the three principal ruins, one—Balcony House—contained a spring; another—Spruce Tree House—was in the immediate vicinity of the largest spring on the mesa; and the third—Cliff Palace—laid just below a point where although no "prominent spring at the present time existed," the early dwellers probably had developed one. It was to be remembered also that aboriginal requirements in the matter of water supplies were much less than those of their "white successors." Supposedly the aboriginal occupants of the ruins of the Mesa Verde were prepared in times of scarcity to carry their water supplies from wells or springs in the canyon bottoms. [8]

Officers of the park expressed the hope that artesian waters might be developed to solve the water shortage on the mesas, but the geologist was not too optimistic about this:

There is no hope that such water could be secured under sufficient head to rise to the mesa surface. Wells drilled in the bottom of the canyons through the Mancos shale to the underlying sandstone of the Dakota and McElmo series might tap waters which would rise to the bottom of the canyon or a little above, but these would be of little value to the temporary sojourners on the mesa top 1,000 feet above. Wells drilled in the mesa itself can not hope to secure such flowing waters although small supplies can probably be secured by drilling a few hundred feet through the sandstone at central points in the broader mesas to the top of the underlying shales, where such waters as penetrate the sandstone are stopped in their downward course by the impervious clay beds.

In his report, Mendenhall described the following springs and suggested means of improving and increasing the water supplies.

Spruce Tree House, of course, contained the principal and most accessible spring in the park. For this reason the opposite spur of the mesa tap was selected as the headquarters camp for the park rangers and for tourist travel. The spring was located under a cliff a few yards north of the ruin. It was neither more nor less than a strong seep along a shale seam in the massive sandstone. This seep had been developed by drifting in four or five feet along the water-bearing seam and scooping out a shallow basin at the end of the drift. The water used for drinking purposes was dipped up from this little basin and carried to the camp above; the overflow was conducted by a shallow ditch to a cistern seven or eight feet square, and perhaps as many feet deep, under the cliff below the spring. The supply from the cistern was used for watering stock. Another crude reservoir was placed a little below it, and this received the overflow from the cistern. This supply was used for stock-watering also. In addition to these improvements a shallow natural tank above the cliff in the path of the flood channel from the mesa to the canyon was deepened and its capacity was increased by constructing a wall on its lower side. In the blasting operations connected with this improvement a leak developed in the bottom of the reservoir, making it useless. If properly repaired to store storm waters, the reservoir would obviate the necessity of taking stock down under the cliff to the cistern at the. spring, except during the particularly dry periods.

The flow from the Spruce Tree Spring was but a few gallons per minute, but it was reported to be permanent and the water of satisfactory quality. Probably, its flow could be increased slightly by extending a tunnel 25 or 30 feet along the water-bearing vein, thus concentrating the flow. Under the existing conditions a great deal of the water escaped because it came out for a distance of 50 or 60 feet along a deposit of rock and was lost. A longer tunnel extended to the northwest would intercept some of this escaping water and should add to the supply then available. Two or three additional well-constructed cement cisterns, reported the geologist, should be placed below the spring to store the water that was being lost during periods when there were no visitors at Spruce Tree House. Two such reservoirs with a capacity of 1,500 or 2,000 gallons each in addition to the cistern already in use would probably enable the spring to meet all the demands of the camp for a number of years to come.

Balcony House occupied an almost unreachable shelf under an overhanging cliff on the west side of Soda Canyon. There was a small spring in this House that had been improved during the restoration of the ruin in 1911. During ordinary seasons it supplied sufficient water for the occasional visitors who journeyed to it from headquarters at Spruce Tree Camp. It was reported by those who were familiar with the region that the old shallow spring before improvement sometimes got so low that it contained drinking water enough for not more than two persons; this situation was greatly improved with the construction of a little reservoir that stored about 20 or 30 gallons of water. The flow of the spring was very slight, indeed scarcely enough to measure, but when the seepage was stored in the small reservoir a supply accumulated sufficient for such demands as were likely to be made upon it.

A similar spring of somewhat greater capacity existed one-half mile north of Balcony House, directly at the head of the side canyon which was tributary to Soda Canyon. This spring laid just below some of the ruins which had not been restored and the spring itself seemed not to have been developed. Furthermore, it was still inaccessible because it was about 75 feet below the top of the cliff and the steep stone steps used by the cliff-dwellers probably were never practicable for white men, and had been worn away. A ladder 20 feet long over the steepest part of the cliff face, however, would make this spring water obtainable. If it were cleaned out and a small reservoir with a capacity of a barrel more or less constructed, it would supplement in a useful way the supply then available in the Balcony House itself.

At Cliff Palace, the most extensive of the ruins, there was no water nearer than at Balcony House a mile away to the southwest, or at Spruce Tree House two miles to the northwest. Four hundred or five hundred feet north of Cliff Palace, however, at the base of the sandstone scarp under which it was built, was a seep from which a spring could be developed that would probably be permanent, or if not absolutely permanent, would yield water except during the driest of the seasons.

The sandstone here, as at Spruce Tree House and Balcony House, is interrupted by narrow bands of shale and these shale bands, being impermeable, are followed to an outlet by the water that penetrates to them through the porous overlying sandstone. A few feet of tunnel at this point so placed as to be protected from the flood overflow from the cliff above would develop a useful water supply. A temporary supply has been developed here by the workers who repaired the Cliff Palace, and a trail is already in existence that leads to this point. There is at present no urgent need for this water supply, and its development may will be postponed until a need develops and park funds are available. If the tourist travel shall ever become so great that the developments at Spruce Tree House are inadequate, or should the Department be able to afford this additional development at Cliff Palace, which would be a convenience rather than a necessity, it can then be carried out.

Mendenhall summarized his report by saying that conditions in the park were such that artesian supplies could not be secured at the surfaces of any of the mesas. They might be developed in the bottoms of the canyons but would be of little use here as a convenience to the public who would make use of the park. Wells drilled in the tops of the mesas as far from the edges as possible would doubtless develop a little water. Should there ever be so great a need that the other water supplies were inadequate, a well 400 to 500 feet deep, three-quarters of a mile southeast of Spruce Tree House and equipped with a powerful windmill would probably yield small supplies. Generally speaking, however, it was recommended that the spring at Spruce Tree House be improved and an additional reservoir placed there. It was believed that these improvements would fulfill all water requirements in that part of the park for many years to come. Inexpensive developments at Cliff Palace and north of Balcony House might be carried out as conveniences as funds became available. [9]

In 1914 a new well was constructed at Red Spruce Station (School Section Canyon) and a good flow of water found. That same year a gasoline engine and pump were installed at the cisterns just below the springs of Spruce Tree House. The engine and pump were protected with a rough board shelter of irregular dimensions, as the wall of the cliff was used as part of the building. The water was pumped to a galvanized tank on the top of the cliff, above the Camp, and from there conducted in pipes to the Camp and to a watering trough for stock, eliminating the need of taking horses over the trail to Spruce Tree House. The spring at Balcony House yielded a constant flow of pure water, "as did the one at Cliff Palace." [10]

By 1915 wells in Morfield, Prater, Red Spruce, Soda and Navajo Canyons constituted the water supply for the northern portion of the park, while the springs at Spruce Tree House, Cliff Palace, Balcony House, and Rock Springs were the sources of supply in the lower part of the park. [11]

As most of the water in the park came from springs and wells, the water supply varied from year to year. The spring at Spruce Tree House held out at all times and had so far furnished all the water required, though with building projects and the increased number of tourists the demand was greater than usual. [12] In 1918 a water tower was built above the hotel, located high enough to give pressure to all parts of the Camp. [13] Next year a fine spring was cleaned out at the head of Fewkes Canyon and it yielded an abundance of clear and cold water to the thirsty tourist. "The water sign used by these people of the long ago was found cut in the rock of the cliff, a sign by which anyone passing along the old trail would know that water was below." [14]

In his annual report of 1921 the Director stated that one vital improvement that confronted the Park Service with full force was the development of a larger water supply in Mesa Verde. The spring at Spruce Tree Canyon could meet the needs of about 4000 visitors a year if properly conserved.

We must, however, expect a larger number of visitors from year to year. While a plan has been developed which promises to enlarge the water supply to double its present quantity, only needing funds to put it into operation, we can entertain only as many visitors as can be supplied with water at any given time.

The plan mentioned by the Director was suggested by Major Welch, general manager and chief engineer of the Palisades Interstate Park of New York, who was sent to Mesa Verde by Mather to go over the water problem with the Superintendent. [15]

E. Origin of the log-cabin museum

In his report to the Department about the ruins of Mesa Verde, Dr. Hewett recommended not only the excavation and repair of the principal ruins, but also that all objects of antiquity obtained from the ruins be kept in a museum within the park for the purpose of illustrating the life of the cliff dwellers. Nowhere, he said, could these objects be so instructive as it restored to their proper places in the houses, or kept in a museum near at hand. [1]

Dr. Fewkes began the excavation of the ruins in 1908. On January 29, 1909, the Secretary of the Smithsonian requested of the Secretary of the Interior that the objects found by Fewkes be "committed to the permanent custody of the United States National Museum, for incorporation in the large series of objects of similar character belonging to the Government." [2] Three days later the Secretary of the Interior granted the Smithsonian the permission requested. [3] After this decision, Mrs. Gilbert McClurg, of the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association, whose husband was still an applicant for the superintendency of Mesa Verde, complained bitterly to Senator Hughes of Colorado of the fact that relics had been removed by Fewkes to the Smithsonian. [4]

In his reports, Superintendent Randolph kept the idea of a museum in the park alive, but what really brought the subject to the fore was the pot-hunting incursions of Ranger Jeep, son-in-law of Superintendent Rickner.

On June 14, 1915, Rickner informed Mark Daniels, Superintendent of National Parks, that Jeep had discovered an unexplored ruin, "unless it has been entered from an air ship, and he will, be there in a day or two now." He had reached a point from where he could see several fine jugs inside the building, and a room that seemed to be sealed. Rickner invited Daniels to come to the park and see the new ruin, which he called Daniels' House. Two days later Jeep reached the house and it proved to be untouched "since the ancient people left it ages ago." Sixteen bowls and jars, several fine stone axes, some bone tools and some wrappings were discovered. There was one room to which all doors and windows were still sealed, but the roof had fallen in, and "under the debris there may be some more relics" worthy of preservation. Rickner requested a cabinet from Daniels to protect the pottery and to place it at the Ranger Station. [5]

Not long after writing Daniels. Rickner informed Mather that he had a nice collection of relics at the Camp and needed a place to keep and preserve them; that he had a fine lot of jar and implements and would like to have money to build a proper place for them. He suggested to keep the collection in a cabinet at the Ranger Station. [6]

While cleaning up Painted House (Fire Temple) and Lane House (Oak Tree House), some very valuable relics were uncovered, wrote Rickner,

and now arises the question of to whom these articles belong. I have started a nice collection from the findings at Daniels House, and it is my desire to establish a museum at the Spruce Tree Camp. It has been a matter of wonder to tourists, and a disappointment to them, that there was no collection for them to examine, and I am very anxious to get a collection for that place. Please advise me what disposition you wish made of the findings of the work now being done. [7]

In response to Rickner's request, Mather wrote that a similar question was presented at the time the Smithsonian was in charge of the excavation and repair of Balcony House in 1911, at which time the Colorado Cliff Dwellings Association desired to deposit in a suitable place in Colorado the relics found during the excavations. According to the Smithsonian, this arrangement was in conflict with terms of the Act of March 3, 1879, which authorized all collections of relics to be deposited in the National Museum.

Under this ruling, therefore, the relics collected in connection with excavations and investigations in the Mesa Verde National Park must be deposited in the National Museum. However, it is believed in case of duplicate specimens obtained, the Smithsonian Institution will permit of their being retained within the metes and bounds of the park. It is suggested this matter be taken up by you with Dr. Fewkes, who is in charge of the work of excavation, and ascertain from him whether there are any duplicate specimens, and if so, that a list thereof be forwarded to the Department so that the matter may be brought to the attention of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. In case it is found practicable to permit duplicate specimens to be kept in the park, I have to request to be advised as to exactly how they are to be preserved, at what place and in whose custody. Also whether it would be possible for the present park force to have same properly marked and catalogued so that the traveling public in the reservation may know exactly what they are. [8]

Mr. D. W. Roper, a park visitor, was of the opinion that a museum at Spruce Tree Camp would attract many visitors. Mr. Jeep, he said, who was the guide and keeper of the park, had a collection of "pots, implements and skulls" that he had secured at various times from the cliff dwellings. It was only a very small beginning, "but he seems to be very much interested in securing relics and in caring for them" [9]

On December 15 Mather sent the superintendent a copy of H. R. Bill 4817, making an appropriation of $50,000 for the construction of a public building at Mancos, to be used as an office and museum for the preservation of historic relics from the Mesa Verde National Park. Nothing came out of this bill. [10]

Mather, in a special report to the Secretary, noted that many curios and rare objects of historic interest recently uncovered at Mesa Verde were being carried away by tourists because the park had no place to house and protect them; that a museum should be constructed in the park, and an effort made to recover some of the important relics that had been carried away. "If there is a building in which these objects may be placed for preservation, in all likelihood many valuable relics will be voluntarily returned to the park." [11]

A collection of relics, most of them from Cliff Palace, was offered for sale in 1916 for the "proposed museum" of Mesa Verde. This collection was owned by Mrs. B. W. Ritter of Durango, and contained "dozens of pieces of pottery, stone weapons and implements, bone implements, and possibly some musical instruments." For lack of funds it could not be purchased by the Department. [12]

One influential visitor suggested even a cheap shed and some cases to enclose the relics and keep them from handling; that the splendid collection of artifacts in Denver was drawing the attention of many visitors and another collection in Mesa Verde would add greatly to the general interest in the cliff dwellers. Another wrote that any relics found in the future should be kept in the park instead of being sent to other museums. [13]

On September 28, Rickner wrote Marshall, Superintendent of National Parks:

I would respectfully ask authority to have a case for curios made and placed at Spruce Tree Camp. There are many good things of interest in the way of relics at the Camp, and every now and then something else is found, and all these should be protected, and yet be where they can be seen, for they are of great interest to the tourists. Last week Ranger Jeep found, way back under the cliff of one of the ruins, among loose stones and the dust of ages, a very good mummy of a small child. There are also some nice jars and other curios from Daniels Rouse and other pieces that should be placed so that anyone desiring can see them, and yet have them protected from handling.

He asked funds to have a case made, with lock and glass front, 5' 8" width, 4' 8" deep, three shelves, native pine and stained; he was authorized to spend $22.00 for the case, which was built early in December of 1916. [14]

To keep Marshall interested in his museum activities, Rickner sent him a little jar or mug and a brown stone ax; the little mug was found in Mummy House nearly under Sun Temple and the stone ax in Daniels' House, together with other relics. [15]

In his annual report of 1917, the Director announced that a museum and gallery of pictures of the park would be established in the new log-cabin building originally constructed for a Ranger Station. All relics of the cliff dwellings and pueblo ruins now in the park, he wrote,

and those that may hereafter be accumulated will be installed in this museum. The museum building has a broad veranda, where visitors may sit and contemplate the beauties of Spruce Tree Canyon. In this building Dr. Fewkes may lecture to the visiting public on the history of the Mesa Verde and on his archeological work in the park-provided, of course, that the continuation of his work is authorized. [16]

In the fall of 1917 the Ranger Station was rehabilitated for museum purposes. Early in the spring of the following year, four large wall cases and one large floor case of archeological material and a multiplex display of 12 framed enlargements of Mesa Verde ruins and scenes were installed in the large room of the museum cabin. [17] This room would be used as a public gathering place and for lectures by the scientists in charge of the work of excavating and repairing the ancient buildings of the park. [18] Mesa Verde Museum, although small and of humble beginnings, was the first one established in a national park.

After the museum was open to the public the rangers did some more "excavating" and added to the museum a nice lot of relics." [19] The small museum became one of the most interesting features of the park and was thoroughly enjoyed by the traveling public. It was only "second in value of interest to the prehistoric dwellings themselves." [20]

Director Mather wrote in his annual report of 1920 that the museum was growing in importance each year as new exhibits were added. When funds were provided to enlarge the structure and provide fire protection for valuable relics, he hoped that many of the Mesa Verde specimens stored in Washington or in private collections in different parts of the country would be restored, to the park by gift or by loan.

Mather was very pleased with the museum when he saw it in 1920, but later he wrote the following note to Rickner:

I am fully convinced that no one should be permitted to excavate the ruins or remove articles therefrom unless he bears authority from the Department, and it should be made clear that anyone that does will be liable to prosecution. [21]