The Land We Cared For... A History of the Forest Service's Eastern Region

Backgrounds

From what kind of families and backgrounds do Forest Service people of the Eastern Region come? Most of them, with some notable exceptions, come from rural areas in the states of the Eastern Region. Often their fathers were involved in some sort of timber or outdoor work. And they come from hardy stock. Sigurd Dolgaard, whose career spanned decades in the Eastern Region, had a father who worked for a logging company. The family lived 13 miles from the town where the father worked. Every day, in all weather, he walked to and from work, nearly 30 miles a day and also did a day's work. When asked how he had the time to do all of this in one day, his reply was that he walked a quarter of a mile and then ran a quarter of a mile to get to work on time and home for supper. [1]

Getting the Job Done

With fathers such as Mr. Dolgaard, it is not surprising that the sons and daughters were deeply imbued with the work ethic and with getting the job done. It was traditional not to talk much about such matters, except perhaps to young sons and daughters who were being instructed in the important things in life, but underlying attitudes can often be seen in humorous anecdotes. An example might be the story of Jack Valentine and Frank Legat of the Superior National Forest, who were running a compass baseline in the middle of the winter from Ely to Grand Marais, Minnesota. The idea was to survey a baseline by walking through the woods sighting a compass and holding on a given bearing. After many miles of this, Valentine and Legat closed out two chains (132 feet) south of the known point they were supposed to hit. They were upset by that much inaccuracy because the baseline could not be used and all of their work would be wasted. After thinking about it for a while, they came up with the answer: Legat's right snowshoe was caked with more snow than the left and was much heavier. This had caused him to veer off course as he sighted the compass. [2]

The humor of this story might escape many people who would only wonder what the two men were doing out in the woods of northern Minnesota in mid-winter doing a job which could be done much more easily in the summer. But to Forest Service people, the story illustrates the determination it takes sometimes to get the job done. It also shows the kind of people involved and the unknown problems that can get in the way of success.

Forest Service people of the Eastern Region, being mostly New Englanders and Midwesterners and small town people, carry with them the values of those places. In the recent years the weekly National Public Radio program called the "Prairie Home Companion" has become a touchstone for the way of life referred to here. Broadcast nationally from St. Paul, Minnesota, the show features the humorous stories of Garrison Keillor who talks about the imaginary town of Lake Woebegon, Minnesota—"my home town." Keillor's humor is not for everyone, it seems to be lost on most city people, but if you were raised in a small town or rural community in the Midwest—or anywhere—you can relate to his stories. Keillor has a firm grasp of Midwestern and small town values and his gentle humor evokes feeling of warm nostalgia for millions of people.

The "Prairie Home Companion" has commercials for imaginary products, including powder milk biscuits. These biscuits are made of the purest of flour raised by Norwegian bachelor farmers near Lake Wobegon. Keillor claims that powder milk biscuits have special powers to help shy people get up and do what needs to be done. This sort of thing has special meaning for many Forest Service people. Jim Brewer, former Supervisor of the Chippewa National Forest, speaking about the kind of people who are in the Forest Service, put it this way:

"Most people have a great interest in the outdoors, nature, and the environment. That's a kind of shared set of values between us that bind us together. Most of them are very hard working individuals. They work a lot of independent situations, without close supervision, and you can rely on them; you can count on them to come through with what needs to be done. We sort of kid about having a powder milk biscuit, you know, and then that gives you the strength to do what needs to be done—Garrison Keillor you know." [3]

Dedication to Work

Anyone who talks with Forest Service people will be struck with their remarkable dedication to their work. Many Forest Service men and women speak so enthusiastically about their work that it is clear that they identify closely with it. They do not seem to have the total separation between work-life and home-life which is so common for the 20th century man.

How did such people come to be in the Forest Service? Like many of the older Forest Service men, Sigurd Dolgaard's first contact with the Service was in the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930's. [4] Bill Wolff, now retired in Lakewood, Wisconsin, was in the CCC on the Nicolet National Forest for three years. Then he "graduated" to towerman and next to fire guard. In 1970 he retired from the Forest Service. His job at that time was Administrative Officer (in charge) of Blackduck Job Corps Center. "Not bad," says Wolff, "for a depression-era school dropout from Chicago. Right?" [5]

Bill Emerson went into the Forest Service as a result of a letter he received from a District Ranger. Emerson had written to inquire about camping in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area. The answer from a Ranger in the BWCA was a long, personal letter about wilderness camping and the uniqueness of the BWCA. Emerson decided that if the Forest Service had people like that, it would be a good outfit to join. [6]

The men who were foresters in the 1930's through the 1950's considered themselves "custodians" of the forest rather than "resource managers," the proper term today. [7] The role of custodian fitted well with the Forest Service's concept of its mission going all the way back to Gifford Pinchot and the beginnings. It also suited the conditions in which foresters worked in the Eastern Region. Since most of the National Forests there were created from cut-over, eroded, and burned lands, there were fewer resources to manage while the Forests were being restored. The job of the forester actually was custodial and restorative.

If eastern foresters were custodians, they were also self-reliant and goal-oriented. Although there was definitely a Forest Service way of doing things, the isolated situation in which many foresters worked made individuality and self-reliance character requirements for the job. Because they seldom worked in the field under much supervision, the typical Forest Service employee developed a goal-oriented philosophy. Getting the job done was everything. They simply were not clock-watchers. Often they stayed on the job until it was done. They wanted their monthly reports and diaries to show jobs completed and the periodic inspections to see accomplishments.

An example of determination to get the job done happened one winter on the Superior National Forest. There was an unseasonal warm spell, an Indian summer in the middle of the winter in which the snow on the ground melted and ground litter dried out but the lakes remained frozen. There was a high fire hazard, and several fires started. A group of fire fighters working on one fire spotted another fire across a lake. The fire boss dispatched a two-man crew on ice skates to cross the lake carrying their fire fighting equipment on their backs and put out the fire before it spread dangerously. The distance was about a mile and a half, but the men covered it quickly and in 15 minutes put out the fire. [8]

Often, Region 9 retirees, looking back over decades in the Forest Service, will say that their favorite job of all was District Ranger. Even though the individual may have risen to a high position and served in many different line and staff positions, the job of Ranger was the most enjoyable, and they often use that word. What was it about being a Ranger that they enjoyed so much? To answer this, it is necessary to understand two basic characteristics about such men. One, they liked working out-of-doors and really did not feel comfortable doing paper work in an office. They believed that the important work was not being done if they were not in the field. The second characteristic was a desire to work on their own without supervision.

The job of Ranger fits the bill on both counts. A Ranger is a line officer. He makes decisions and, within the framework of Forest Service rules, even makes policy. He deals directly with many publics, and in effect has his own Forest which he manages and for which he is responsible. To do the job he must be out in the Forest much of the time and, particularly in the Eastern Region, he must deal with diverse interest groups and individuals. He is usually the local spokesman for the Forest Service. His position in the community is usually one of respect and deference.

Ordinarily, District Ranger or Assistant Ranger is the first important job a career person has, and they are usually young when they obtained the assignment. This may account for part of the warm feeling they have toward the job. Those were the best years of their lives, so to speak. But it is also true that being a Ranger in the Forest Service has been for decades one of the most glamorous and sought-after positions in the federal Civil Service. In fact, many Americans would probably be surprised to know that it really is a Civil Service job like so many others.

There are jobs other than Ranger that people like. William Byers, in over 35 years in the Forest Service rose to be a staff officer on the Chequamegon National Forest. He never reached his highest aspirations, but he enjoyed the work, especially the responsibility.

Byers says that in the Forest Service he has had what he calls "work freedom." There is always a job to do and superiors to report to, but there is a high degree of trust and confidence. "You set your own pace," says Byers:

"There is not someone nit-picking and looking over your shoulder all the time. To me that is important. When you feel that you can do a job—as long as you stay within the legal requirements, the supervisory positions in the Forest will give you the latitude to carry out the job. There are always a few people in the organization who say, I want it done this way, or I want it done that way. They are hard to work for."

It is often true in the Forest Service that the line officers do not know as much about what is being done as those under them. This is true of staff officers also. They have experts working under them who can provide the compartmentalized technical knowledge they need. However, when it comes to administration, making decisions, and taking responsibility for what goes wrong, that is the job of the staff officer and line officer.

The Forest Supervisor or Regional Forester does not need to know everything about the work of the staff officer. He/she depends on the staff officer to take care of ordinary problems which arise in his/her areas of expertise and responsibility. This system of delegating responsibility strengthens the position of staff officers to the point that they become "Little Supervisors" or "Little Regional Foresters" themselves. This is especially true during the first few months after a new line officer arrives.

All of this means that staff officers are important people in the system. But also important are the specialists who work under the staff officers. Responsibility is delegated to them as well. They come to think of themselves as being "in charge" of their areas. This attitude of responsibility is important, perhaps even essential, for good morale and job satisfaction. By allowing so many people to have it, the Forest Service has a surprisingly high proportion of employees who take pride in what they are doing and believe they are accomplishing something. [9] Of course, not all employees are this way. The Forest Service, is after all, a bureaucracy and there are people in lower positions for whom it is just a job and who are just putting in their hours.

But one reason for the generally high morale, job satisfaction, and personal development of the people of the Forest Service seems to be connected to the traditional decentralization of authority and delegation of responsibility. Such a conclusion is supported by a study made in 1981 by a Penn State group. The study selected the Forest Service as one of 10 public and private organizations in the country with model qualities that can improve understanding of how organizations can be successful. One characteristic shared by all 10 organizations was a demonstrated commitment to the highest ethical and moral standards. These qualities are traditional in the Forest Service. Many young men have been attracted to careers in the Forest Service because of what one such young man identified as the "integrity and dedication" of a man he came to know in the Forest Service. [10]

Moving

The dedication of Forest Service people can be seen in their willingness to transfer and move their place of residence. It is traditional in the Service that employees, especially those on the way up the career ladder, must move to a different post every few years. Usually the transfer is within the Region, but even so that could mean a move from northern New Hampshire to the Missouri Ozarks. For a family to move—and most Forest Service people seem to have families—means serious disruptions in life styles, especially for wives and children. It is not uncommon for a person to work 35 years for the Forest Service and stay only two to four years at each of a dozen different places. [11]

When asked about the problems of moving, Forest Service people are stoical. They say that transfers are part of being in the Forest Service. You cannot afford to get too deeply rooted in one place—your home is the Forest Service. Sometimes, the children do not understand about being in the Forest Service family. The most difficult moves, according to many, were when the family had teenaged daughters. Sometimes teenagers were left behind with another family for a year or two so they could finish high school and be with their friends. [12]

The Forest Service has its reasons for transferring its personnel. These go all the way back to Gifford Pinchot and the early days of the Service. All of the National Forests were out West then and most of the foresters came from the East. An early National Forest Manual put the matter of moving quite simply: "Every member of the organization should expect to transfer. Service interests will be served thereby." [13]

The modern day leaders of the Forest Service have not changed the system of frequent transfers. Perhaps it is because they went through it themselves. There are, however, sound reasons for continuing the system. It prevents field personnel from putting down deep roots and becoming so attached to a locality, or a Forest that they lose their perspective or their primary loyalty to the Service and its mission. Another important reason is the broad training the system gives to personnel in many different jobs and situations. This is especially necessary for upward bound people who will someday be managers.

The tradition of frequent moving tends to divide Forest Service people into two groups—those willing to move and those not willing. Often those who have been transferred frequently have been the professional, college trained, and upward-bound people. This group was almost exclusively men in the old days. Those not willing to move were usually local people with no college training and no desire to leave their home town. However, this group was not confined to women. Many local men took jobs with the Forest Service just to have a job. They did not plan to make it a career. Occasionally an individual would like the job, realize the possibilities and want to start moving up the ladder. If so, the key to advancement was being willing to move. Vacancies in jobs such as Assistant Ranger and Ranger were usually filled by people moved in from elsewhere.

This situation presented the ambitious employee with a real dilemma. Warren Livens once had a very capable employee under him when he was a District Ranger. The man was ambitious and frequently asked Livens for a better job. Finally, Livens arranged for a promotion on a National Forest hundreds of miles away. The man thought it over and decided he could not leave his home town. He never complained again about his job. [14]

The Forest Service Family

Despite the hardships of frequent changes of residence, the wives of Forest Service men seem to enjoy their roles. They speak of being in the Forest Service as being part of a family. Some 30 or 40 years ago, when there were few hotels or motels in the small towns where Supervisors' Offices and Ranger Stations were located, it was the job of the wives to provide lodging and meals for visiting Forest Service people. They became well acquainted under these conditions and often the visits were returned later. Frequently a family moved to a new station and found they already knew several other families there. [15] The feeling of family which pervaded the Forest Service also helped to ease the loneliness of dislocations.

Eastern Region people like to tell the story of Art Greeley, the son of William B. Greeley, Chief of the Forest Service from 1920 to 1928. When Art was a child, the family home often had Forest Service guests visiting Washington from all over the country. The family, rather than have the boy call visitors by their first names as his father did, taught him to speak to them as "uncle." Later, when Art Greeley himself became Regional Forester of old Region 9 and later Deputy and Associate Chief of the Forest Service, he was superior in rank to many of the same men. Nevertheless, he still called them "uncle." [16]

Often the wives became involved directly in their husbands' work. When there were only a few people at a Ranger Station and some were down with the flu or some other illness, the wives filled in as clerk or switchboard operators. Wives tell of driving trucks and scaling logs when the men were absent. One wife, Alice Tausch, remembers taking her toddler regularly up in a fire tower for watch duty when there was an overload of work for the men on the ground. [17]

In the Eastern Region there were few residential compounds for Forest Service families. Ordinarily, when a family came to a new assignment, they had to make their own arrangements for housing. Sometimes they are able to take over a house being vacated by another employee, but often not. In the 1930's and 40's young couples had to occupy crude shelters in isolated areas in the forest. Kay Samuelson and her forester husband lived for several months on the recently created Superior National Forest in an abandoned Finnish sauna before building a tarpaper shack for more permanent quarters. [18] Bill and Mabel Wolff lived in a two room towerman's cabin so deep in the woods that supplies had to be packed in to them. [19]

Women Employees

In the days before women were foresters and District Rangers, women employees were forced to find special niches if they wanted to advance in the Forest Service. Fern Nilsen was such a woman. After several years working in private industry, she entered the Forest Service and worked for 8.5 years in a Forest Supervisor's Office. Then she went to the Regional Office where she worked in fiscal management for many years, specializing in accounting and budget.

When Nilsen came to the Regional Office bookkeeping and payroll were still being done manually. Over the years she played a key role in conversions to National Cash Register Company machines and eventually to several generations of computers and automation. Sometimes she had misgivings about the changes: "In the last few years the professional in accounting and budgeting work took a big step that at first we weren't really sure of, so I guess I was a pioneer in that area."

In a subtle way, Fern Nilsen accepted the common Forest Service belief that the most important work was done in the field and not in the office. Today in retirement she is proud of having been sent on details to Washington and other places. She is quick to mention going to the field on service trips, but she admits somewhat sadly, "I wasn't out in the forest." [20] Others point out that Nilsen is not the "typical Forest Service girl" working in the Regional Office. She had an important position in budgeting and payroll and as such worked closely with most aspects of the Region. [21] This gave her a broader view—what she calls "a different angle." [22]

The inevitable questions about women employees such as Fern Nilsen are: did they rise as high as men in the Forest Service and did they receive equal pay? Many older Forest Service people, even Nilsen, are defensive about these questions. They point out that there were differentials in pay, but it was "not intentional." Women did clerical work in the old days and such work paid less than traditional men's jobs.

But there were clearly injustices in the system. Often women clerks were less mobile than men because they had husbands and children and had to stay where the husband worked. Sometimes when a new man came on the job he was trained by a woman clerk who had been there for years and knew the procedures. In this situation, the man might very easily be making more pay than the woman and might later be promoted partly because of the knowledge he had gained from the woman. This kind of thing is changing in the Forest Service, but gradually. [23]

Fern Nilson, in 28.5 years in Region 9 rose from the bottom of the ladder to the Civil Service Grade of 11. In her day, women with no college training rarely went beyond Grade 3, but Grade 11 is still not particularly high. If she had been a man in forestry, she could have gone much farther. Part of the treatment of women in the Forest Service stems from the traditional "macho attitude" of the Service. Women were given clerical work because it was thought they were not able to be out fighting forest fires or scaling logs. Supposedly, these tasks were too difficult and dangerous for women. And after all the presence of women would only make trouble among the men. Often the clincher in these arguments was that in the field there were no separate rest rooms for women. In fact, there were usually no rest rooms at all. Forest Service men were too Victorian to believe that decent women should be required to go into the bushes to relieve themselves. Such attitudes were important in keeping women working in offices.

Prejudices against women doing "man's" work are disappearing in the Forest Service, but again it is gradual. Even the older forester types are today willing to admit that women can scale logs and fight forest fire and "go into the bushes just like we can." [24] At the time of this writing there were five women District Rangers in the Eastern Region: Hilary Dustin on the Finger Lakes National Forest, Kathleen Travers of the Greenbriar District of the Monongahela, Mary Hosmer/Billetdeaux of the Ridgeway District of the Monongahela, Susan Rutherford of the Gunflint District of the Superior, and Elizabeth Ohlrogge of the Glidden District of the Chequamegon. Rita Thompson recently left a Ranger position on the White Mountain for another post.

One of the woman Rangers, Elizabeth Ohlrogge, came to the Chequamegon from being Timber Management Assistant on the Helena National Forest in Montana. She was not the outdoor type before she went to college, but her university had a good forestry school and she "sort of fell into forestry." Ohlrogge has been in the Forest Service 12 years. In those years she has seen an increased flexibility in how a District should be managed and what kind of people can do it. At the same time the Forest Service was growing accustomed to accepting new specialists and a more diverse work force. Women and minorities were emerging as a part of the new work force.

Ohlrogge has never found being a woman to be a physical liability in her work. Nor have other Forest Service people treated her differently because she is woman. She is very happy in the Forest Service and believes that the Service is becoming more flexible in its attitude toward all sorts of management problems. For instance, the attitude toward having part-time workers is changing. She thinks this will allow even more women to enter the field. As a District Ranger, Ohlrogge operates under a team management approach. She says she has no problems using authority or accepting it from either sex. [25]

Getting Ahead in the Forest Service

What qualities does it take to get to the top in the Forest Service? When asked this question, former Regional Forester and now Deputy Chief of the Forest Service Larry Henson answered not surprisingly that the key was hard work. When pressed for other factors, he added that those who have succeeded had to avoid being stuck in one narrow niche. They have tried to do a variety of different jobs and to "do them fairly well."

Another necessary quality for success is creativeness, according to Henson. But it is not enough just to be creative; one must be recognized in the Service as being creative. Furthermore, one must be willing to take risks, to try something different. It is also necessary to work well with others, not only in the Service but outside it. Above all, one must understand the Forest Service and believe in its work; otherwise all is meaningless. Henson's prescription for success in the Forest Service is obviously not very complex, but it squares with what was said earlier about dedication, the work ethic, and Midwestern values.

It has been traditional in the Forest Service that people in the highest places such as Regional Forester come from the West and from forestry. Only in recent years have there been any Regional Foresters from the East and from fields other than forestry. As Regional Forester of the Eastern Region, Henson was one of the new breed. He comes from southern Illinois and feels at home in the Midwest. Henson believes that because he grew up in a part of the Eastern Region he was better qualified to manage the Region than if he had been raised in the West. In a part of the country like the Midwest, there are, according to Henson, "customs and mores that you just don't learn overnight, and it helps to have grown up in that environment." When he was stationed for three years in Denver, Colorado, Henson felt a "little bit out of place." [26].

Place in Society

A special problem of the Eastern Region comes from the way private and government lands are intermixed in the National Forests. In this situation, the Forest Service does not have the separate identity it has in the West. In the Eastern Region, Forest Service personnel are well integrated into local communities. In the West, they often live in Ranger compounds, which are, in effect, separate Forest Service communities. The closest things to separate communities in the Eastern Region are the two Job Corps Centers, and only one of these still has family housing. In the Eastern Region, Ranger Stations are typically in small towns and the personnel live completely mixed in with the local population. This situation strongly influences how the public perceives the Forest Service and how people within the Eastern Region relate to each other. It undoubtedly makes Forest Service people more a part of the local communities than in the West and probably less clannish. [27]

In the past, it was a common situation for Forest Service personnel moving into a small town to be treated as outsiders and even to be unwelcome. There were usually some local people who made their living by illegal activities in the National Forests, especially during hard times. These people cut trees illegally, hunted out of season, and grazed their livestock without permits. In recent years, they have grown marijuana in the Forests. The arrival of a new Forest Ranger, especially one from another part of the country who did not understand the local practices, represented a threat to their livelihood. As late as the 1960's, one Ranger in the Ozarks who was confiscating loose-running hogs in the National Forest, was told by the local sheriff that if he came to town he would be arrested for hog stealing. He stayed out of town for a while. [28]

Forest Service employees, knowing they have to cope with local antipathy, have tried to walk a thin line between enforcing the letter of the law and being a threat to the local economy. They usually try hard to make friends and fit into the local community. In most cases they are successful. When they were not, they are transferred. [29]

Retirees

When they retire from the Forest Service, few Eastern Region people want to just forget the whole thing. Often they return to the places where they worked when they were young. They want to see the plantations they planted and gaze up at the tall trees. However, they try not to be sentimental about it. Stanley Olson, who came from his home in Seattle, Washington to the Superior National Forest for its 75th Anniversary celebration in 1985, went on to visit the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the Hiawatha National Forest. He had worked there as a young man. "First time back to the UP in 40 years," he commented. "Many changes—the old clearcut, private hardwood lands look much better regenerated." [30] Another retiree, Dave Kee commented: "I roamed over plantations and stand improvement projects I personally worked on from 1933 through 1941 on the Marquette (now part of Hiawatha) and Ottawa Forests. The results were very gratifying as were the management jobs performed in these same areas since that time." [31]

After they retire from the Eastern Region, Forest Service employees tend to continue living in the same small cities and towns where they worked. Often they return to the place they liked best among all those they had seen during their careers. Quite a few have moved to Florida because of the mild climate, but most return to the Region at least once a year. A few maintain a summer home in the Region and a winter home in Florida.

The retirees try to be active outdoors. Many speak of playing golf three or four times a week, of gardening, and of laying in an ample supply of firewood for the winter. Many have traveled extensively since retirement, but their travel is not as likely to be foreign travel as domestic.

Looking back over their careers in the Forest Service, the retirees talk fondly of the many friendships they formed and the pride they have in the work they did. Although they may have risen to fairly high levels of responsibility and served in the Regional or Washington Office, most say that their favorite job was District Ranger. They often mention the number of years they were in the Forest Service—30 or 40 years or even more. One woman, Cleo Conway has worked for more than 40 years in one office, the North Central Forest Experiment Station at Carbondale, Illinois. Irene Salo worked in the Supervisor's Office of the Superior National Forest in Duluth, Minnesota for 32 years. [32]

The people of the Eastern Region are proud of the Forest Service. Bill Emerson, then a staff officer in the Regional Office, once attended a Great Lakes States environmental conference at which Hubert H. Humphrey was present. Humphrey was then Senator from Minnesota. Emerson made a presentation at the conference on behalf of the Forest Service, and after it was over he asked Humphrey how it had gone. Humphrey replied that he never worried about the Forest Service. It was the best outfit in the federal government—comparable to the Marine Corps in the military. Hubert H. Humphrey was never known for his lack of enthusiasm, but if loyalty and dedication of its people are the measure of a good outfit, one wonders if he was not right on this occasion.

Reference Notes

1. Sigurd Dolgaard, Interview, August 10, 1985.

2. "Retirees' Newsletter, " II, Issue 1, p. 13.

3. Jim Brewer, Interview, August 1985.

4. Sigurd Dolgaard, Interview, August 10, 1985.

5. "Retiree's Newsletter," II, Issue 1, p. 13.

6. Bill Emerson, Interview, August 10, 1985.

7. Bill Emerson to Kay Ripplemeyer, July 31, 1985.

8. Contact, December 11, 1942.

9. William Byers, Interview, October 2, 1986.

10. Jim Brewer, Interview.

11. Milwaukee Retirees', Interview, August 13, 1985.

12. Ibid.

13. Forest Service, The National Forest Manual, Regulations and Instructions (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1928).

14. Warren Livens, Interview, August 13, 1985.

15. Milwaukee Retirees', Interview.

16. Mae Nilsen-Livens, Interview, August 13, 1985.

17. Jim Brewer, Interview.

18. Kay Samuelson, Interview, August 10, 1985.

19. "Retirees' Newsletter," II. 1, p. 13.

20. Fern Nilsen, Interview, August 13, 1985.

21. Harold Svensen, Interview, August 13, 1985.

22. Fern Nilsen, Interview.

23. Milwaukee Retirees', Interview.

24. Ibid.

25. Elizabeth Ohlrogge, Interview, March 19, 1987.

26. Larry Henson, Interview.

27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid. and Elliot Zimmerman Manuscript.

30. Retirees' Newsletter II, Issue 1, (March 11, 1985), p. 12.

31. Ibid., p. 11.

32. Ibid., p. 7.