Endnotes

1. Nathaniel P. Reed to Undersecretary [of the Interior], January 11, 1972, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Box 3, Alaska Task Force General Files, Records of the National Service, Record Group 79, Federal Archives and Records Center (FARC), Seattle, Washington. Additionally, other "interest areas" which could not be withdrawn because they were reserved for other purposes were listed. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971, and the National Interest Lands Provision therein are discussed in Chapter two.

2. Ibid. The total in the January 11 package included 54,190,000 acres identified for study for possible inclusion in the National Refuge System administered by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (later United States Fish and Wildlife Service), and 9,000,000 acres for study as potential addition to the Wild and Scenic Rivers System. Some 6,090,000 acres of this total were areas of "mutual interest."

3. "Natural Areas in Alaska," July 19, 1971, History of NPS in Alaska, Personal Papers of Theodor R. Swem, Evergreen, Colo.; William C. Everhart, The National Park Service (New York: Praeger, 1972), pp. 252-60. The acreage of parks in Alaska amounted to two percent of Alaska's land mass, but twenty-six percent of the total acreage of the 284 units of the National Park System.

By 1972 the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife managed eighteen areas in Alaska totaling 19,819,221.3 acres. The Bureau had a detailed knowledge of the wildlife values of Alaska gained through its role as the wildlife managing agency during territorial days, and had only recently completed a comprehensive survey that identified critical waterfowl habitats throughout the state. "Annual Report of the Lands under control of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife as of June 30, 1972," Xerox copy from Division of Realty, Regional Office, Region 6, United States Fish and Wildlife Service; Interview of Roger Allin by Theodor Swem, January 21, 1979, tapes in Mr. Swem s possession; United States Department of the Interior (USDI), Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (BSF&W), An Evaluation of Alaska Habitat For Migratory Birds, by James C. King and Calvin J. Lensink (Washington, D.C., 1971); USDI, BSF&W, To Have and to Hold, Alaska's Migratory Birds (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971).

4. "Report on a Proposed National Monument at Sitka, Alaska," April 9, 1910, File 1215, Part 1, 3/5/1910-12/5/1910, Parks, Reservations and Antiquities...Sitka, Records of the National Park Service, Record Group 79, National Archives (N.A.), Washington, D.C.; Presidential Proclamation No. 959, March 3, 1910, in U.S., Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Proclamations and Orders Relating to the National Park Service up to January 1, 1945, compiled by Thomas A. Sullivan (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1947), pp. 299-300. Sitka and Old Kasaan were the only historical areas in Alaska before 1976.

5. Presidential Proclamation No. 959.

6. 39 Stat. 938, February 26, 1917; Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service to the Secretary of Interior for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1917, and the Travel Season, 1917 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1917), p. 24; 1922, p. 83. On January 30, 1922, the boundaries were enlarged by 284,800 acres. On March 19, 1932, an additional 246,693 acres were added.

7. USDI, NPS, A History of Mount McKinley National Park, by Grant Pearson (1953), pp. 24-27, 60-66.

8. Ibid.; Charles T. Sheldon, The Wilderness of Denali: Explorations of a Hunter-Naturalist in Northern Alaska, introduction by C. Hart Merriam (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960), p. 212; Charles Sheldon to Stephen T. Mather, December 15, 1915, Proposed National Parks-Mt. Mckinley, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.; National Park Service, "Mt. Mckinley National Park, Alaska," typescript, n.d., Mt. McKinley History, General, 1927-31, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.; United States Department of the Interior (USDI), National Park Service (NPS), Proceedings of the National Parks Conference, January 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, 1917 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1917), pp. 193-99. "Denali," the name Sheldon preferred, was a Native name for the mountain—"The Great One."

9. Pearson, Mount McKinley, pp 26-27, 60-66. Apparently, much of the opposition had to do with a policy of the House Committee on Public Lands that restricted the number of park bills that would be reported favorably each session.

10. Horace M. Albright to John A. Hussey, July 10, 1971. Quoted in USDI, NPS, Historic Resource Study: Katmai National Monument, by John A. Hussey (San Francisco: NPS [Western Service Center], 1971) p. 412.

11. Ibid. Robert F. Griggs led National Geographic Society expeditions into the area in 1915, 1916, and 1917.

12. Ibid. Mr. Albright told Theodor R. Swem that he and Gilbert Grosvenor of the National Geographic Society wrote the proclamation for Katmai. Discussion with Mr. Swem, August 9, 1984.

13. Ibid., pp. 412-16; Presidential Proclamation No. 1487, September 24, 1918; Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1931, p. 102. See also, USDI, NPS, Katmai National Monument, Alaska: A History of Its Establishment and Revision of Its Boundaries, by John M. Kauffmann (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1954). In 1931 the monument was enlarged by 1,609,590 acres. The enlargement reincorporated a small, ten-acre tract removed in 1923 by Executive Order 3897. The purpose of removal of that earlier tract, was, according to Kauffmann, to allow John J. Fulstad to obtain a permit to mine coal.

14. Thomas Riggs, Jr. to Stephen T. Mather, Nov. 18, 1918, Box 159, Monuments, Katmai, 12/31/1917-12/16/1924, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.

15. Juneau Empire, April 18, 1924, Monuments, Glacier Bay, Part 2, 3/21/24-4/29/24, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A. Similar protests are cited in USDI, NPS, Glacier Bay National Monument, Alaska A History of Its Boundaries, by John M. Kauffmann (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1954), p. 35.

16. Presidential Proclamation No. 1763, February 26, 1925. Detailed information on the legislative history of Glacier Bay National Monument is in USDI, NPS, "History of Glacier Bay," by Bruce Black, typescript, 1957, Library, Glacier Bay National Park/Preserve, Gustavus, Alaska; Dave Bohn, Glacier Bay: The Land and the Silence (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1967), pp. 94-96; and Kauffmann, Glacier Bay.

17. Presidential Proclamation No. 1763, February 26, 1925. In 1939 President Franklin D. Roosevelt added 904,960 acres to the monument and in 1955, 14,925 acres were deleted. Presidential Proclamation No. 2330, April 18, 1939; Presidential Proclamation No. 3089, March 31, 1955; Kauffmann, Glacier Bay, pp. 13-33; Black, "Glacier Bay," pp. 76-77.

18. Statement of Dr. W.S. Cooper, Juneau Empire, 1924. Quoted in Kauffmann, Glacier Bay, p. 58. According to Cooper, some eighty of the "principal institutions of the country devoted to scientific research and the cause of conservation" approved and actively supported the proposal.

Interestingly, the Canadian Parks Association supported and lobbied for the proposal. Arthur O. Wheeler to Hubert C. Work, June 13, 1924, Monuments, Glacier Bay, Part 3, 5/1/24-9/2/24, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.

19. "Recommendations submitted by the Ecological Society of America with regard to the Establishment of a National Monument at Glacier Bay, Alaska," n.d. [1924], National Monuments, Glacier Bay, part 1, 12/24/1923-3/20/1924, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.

20. Presidential Proclamation No. 1351, Oct. 25, 1916. President Wilson acted at the request of the Alaska Cruise Club, an organization dedicated to publicizing Alaska. Old Kasaan, 6/30/1913-3/24/1926, Box 596, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.

21. USDI, NPS, Administrative History, Expansion of the National Park Service in the 1930s by Harlen D. Unrau and G. Frank Williss (Denver: NPS, 1983), p. 68. Until 1933, when Executive Order 6166 transferred control of all national monuments to the NPS, the department having jurisdiction over the land from which the monument was withdrawn would administer that monument.

22. Dorr C. Yeager to Verne Staphenhorst, August 25, 1955, Historical Files, William E. Brown Files, Alaska Regional Office, Anchorage, Alaska.

23. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1925, pp. 56-59. By 1972 the boundary adjustments mentioned had made Glacier Bay (2,803,840 acres) the largest unit in the Park System with Katmai (2,792,137 acres) a close second. Everhart, The National Park Service, pp. 253-54.

The size of Glacier Bay and Katmai blurred even more a vague distinction between national parks and monuments. Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the National Park Service, p. 12.

24. 39 Stat. 938. On May 21, 1928, the hunting provision was repealed (45 Stat. 622).

25. From time to time, individuals or organizations in Alaska, even the territorial and state legislatures, requested national park or monument status for some area. Among the areas mentioned were Ice Bluffs of Kotzebue Sound (1929), Shake Island (1939), Imuruk Lava Beds (1963), Serpentine Hot Springs (1970), and Point Barrow (1963). It is believed, however, that these were isolated instances, and do not change the general conclusions. "Alaska wants Ice Bluffs at Kotzebue Sound made a National Park," March 9, 1939, 0-32, Proposed Park, General, part 9, 1/12/29 - 4/28/30; [_____] to Anthony J. Diamond, State Files-Landmark Program, History Division, Washington Office (WASO); Ben Thompson to Esther McCoy, September 4, 1963, L 58, Volume 2, Alaska, 1/1/61-12/31/63, Box 42, Records of the Office of the Regional Director, Region 4, RG 79, Federal Archives and Records Center (FARC), San Bruno, California; Walter Hickel to Theodor R. Swem, May 22, 1970, Document No. 002608, ANILCA Papers, Center for Information and Library Services, United States Department of Interior, Washington, D.C.; Oscar Dick to Regional Director, Western Region, February 21, 1963, L58, Proposed areas, Park Files, Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska. The ANILCA Papers are a collection of Department of the Interior agency files relating to the legislative history of the Alaska National Interest Lands Act. At this point, not all documents are on the computer index. When finished, however, documents listed under this reference may be retrieved by referring to the index.

26. A number of works describe management (or lack) of parks and monuments before 1916. Information here is from Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the National Park Service, pp. 14-16.

27. USDI, Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year ended June 30,1916 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1916), p. 62. The situation was similar in the Department of Agriculture where the Forest Service was the responsible agency.

28. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1918, p. 90.

29. Ibid., 1925, p. 15.

30. Pearson, Mt. McKinley, p. 34. Horace Albright visited in 1931, as well.

31. "Organization, National Park Service, October 10, 1935," In Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the National Park Service, p. 249. In Alaska, after 1937, the Superintendent of Mt. McKinley was also responsible for Katmai, and the custodian of Sitka was responsible for Glacier Bay. Superintendent's Monthly Report, January 1, 1937, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve.

32. Grant Pearson to Regional Director, May 28, 1948, National Monuments, Sitka, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.; Newton B. Drury to Assistant Secretary Warner, October 13, 1947, 3041, Alaska Development, Records of Newton B. Drury, RG 79, N.A. Pearson recommended the appointment of Alfred Kuehl, a landscape architect to supervise the office.

33. Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the National Park Service, p. 29.

34. Pearson, Mt. McKinley, p. 32.

35. USDI, NPS, Public Use of the National Parks: A Statistical Report 1904-46. (Reprint, 1963). It is perhaps a bit unfair to compare Yellowstone, which had the highest visitation in the system, with Alaska. It is believed, however, that such a contrast most vividly expresses the problem.

36. Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the National Park Service, passim.

37. Superintendent's Monthly Reports, April and June 1938, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve. Among the jobs undertaken by the CCC, which was in McKinley the next year as well, were constructing new residences for park employees, moving the dog kennels, building a sewer line, and maintenance of the telephone line.

38. Section G. This cap existed until 1927. John Ise, Our National Park Policy: A Critical History (Baltimore, Md.: John Hopkins Press, 1961) p. 229. In 1925, however, $11,920 was appropriated and $11,533 spent. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1925, p. 70.

39. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1921, p. 96. The $8,000 included all maintenance, protection, improvements in the park, the salary of the superintendent and any assistants, as well as costs of surveys of the boundaries.

The first superintendent was Harry P. Karstens, who had accompanied Charles Sheldon during his stay in the area during the winter of 1907-1908. His first assistant was hired in November 1921 . As late as 1929 the permanent staff consisted of the superintendent and four assistants. Pearson, Mt. McKinley, p. 30.

40. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1929, p. 55.

41. Pearson, Mt. McKinley, pp. 33-42; Superintendent's Monthly Reports, Mount Mckinley National Park, September 1925, November 1925, and passim, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve. Road construction was carried on by the Alaska Road Commission under a cooperative agreement. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1929, p. 106.

42. Superintendent's Monthly Report, Mt. McKinley National Park, March 1935, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve; Harry O. Liek to Alstan G. Gutterson, August 20, 1937, Superintendent's Monthly Report, November 1937, Ibid.; Superintendent's Monthly Report, Mt. McKinley National Park, July 1937, Ibid.; Pearson, Mount McKinley, p. 36.

43. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1932, p. 92.

44. Robert Marshall in 1916, quoted in Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the National Park Service, p. 17. Robert Marshall was General Superintendent of the National Parks in 1916.

45. Arno Cammerer to Ruth Reat, February, 1930, National Monuments, Katmai, 12/3/1917 - 12/26/1927, Box 591, Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.

46. Frank T. Been, "Field Notes of Katmai National Monument Inspection, November 12, 1940," Xerox copy in Brown Files, Alaska Regional Office (ARO); Superintendent's Monthly Report, Mt. McKinley National Park, October-November 1936, June 1937, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve; Hussey, Katmai, p. 423.

Chief Ranger Roger Corbey of Mount McKinley National Park had been assigned a reconnaissance survey of Katmai in 1937. He was in the area for a period in June (he left Mt. Mckinley on June 2 and returned on the 20th). According to Hussey, he was able to do little more than spend a few hours in the monument when his plane landed at Lake Grosvenor and Naknek Lake. The Superintendent's Monthly Reports (Mt. McKinley), indicate, however, that he also made an inspection of the concessioner's camps and operations, of a trail along Brooks River, and of a Fish and Wildlife Service installation. Following, the superintendent recommended that logs be gathered along Brooks Lake for any future buildings constructed by the Service or concessioner, and that a small landing strip be built near Brooks River.

47. Lowell Sumner, "Special Report—Katmai Master Planning Field Study, September 5-13, 1963," Box 4, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Superintendent's Monthly Reports, Mt. Mckinley National Park, September 1940, December 1945, October 1945, July 1948, August 1948, June 1954; Hussey, Katmai, pp. 423-24. Actually, Been and Cahalane spent most of September 1940 on foot in the monument. Been and Alfred Kuehl visited the area in 1945, and the regional director authorized sending a ranger from Mount McKinley to Katmai for temporary duty as early as June 1948.

48. Earl A. Trager, "Glacier Bay Expedition, 1939," typescript in Archives, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve; Black, "Glacier Bay," p. 79; Superintendent's Monthly Report, Mt. McKinley National Park, July 8, 1936. Associate Director Arthur E. Demaray visited, or at least flew over the area in 1936. He planned on flying over Katmai at that time, but was unable to do so.

49. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1921, p. 114; "Report on the Inspection of Old Kasaan N.M., May 27, 1940," by Ben C. Miller [Custodian of Sitka N.M.], Old Kasaan N.M., Brown Files, ARO. In the 1930s the Forest Service removed a number of totem poles and placed them in the reconstructed village of New Kasaan, and several more were taken by Natives in Ketchikan, who said their families owned them. In 1970, long after the area had been abolished, the U. S. Forest Service carried out salvage work at Old Kasaan under an agreement with the descendents of Chief Sonihat, who established the village. Alaska Geographic, V, no. 2 (1978), p. 75.

50. Frank T. Been to Ike P. Taylor, June 19, 1941, Box 65481, Records of the Alaska Road Commission, RG 30, FARC, Seattle; Miller, "Inspection of Old Kasaan N.M." When Ernest Gruening visited the site in 1939, he wrote that the area stood as a "monument to administrative inefficiency and neglect". Gruening, Many Battles: The Autobiography of Ernest Gruening (New York: Livenwright, 1973), pp. 258-59.

51. "Alaska Development Program," September 24, 1946, Box 1, Records of. Newton B. Drury, RG 79, N.A.; Conrad L. Wirth to Asst. Sec. Lewis, March 18, 1954, D18, Alaska Development, R.G.79, FARC, San Bruno; Interview of George Collins by Frank Williss, November 18, 1983. Dorr C. Yeager to Verne Stapenhorst, August 25, 1955, Old Kasaan National Monument, Brown Files, ARO.

52. Superintendent's Monthly Report, Mount McKinley National Park, June 8, 1940, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve.

53. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1921, p. 38; "Field Notes of Katmai National Monument, Inspection November 12, 1940"; Hussey, Katmai, pp. 426-27; Superintendent's Monthly Reports, Mt. McKinley National Park, June 8, 1940, July 1948, and September 1948. In 1940 the Alaska Game Commission assumed protection operations at Katmai and in 1948 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service agreed to provide that service.

54. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt refused to sign a proclamation establishing "Kennicott National Monument" in the Wrangell mountains in 1941, he noted that the area already received some protection by its remote location. Franklin D. Roosevelt to Harold L. Ickes, January 21, 1941, Park Files, Wrangell-St. Elias National Park/Preserve, Glenallen, Alaska.

55. The views of Alaskans toward the federal government is developed in John Hanrahan and Peter Gruenstein, Lost Frontier: The Marketing of Alaska (New York: W. W. Norton, Co., 1977), p. 67.

56. In 1947 Alaska Delegate Bartlett introduced a statehood bill (H.R. 206) that included a provision that would have placed Sitka and Katmai under state control, and reduced Glacier Bay to its original size. The reason was quite clearly Bartlett's displeasure over the Service's failure to undertake any development at Katmai. Newton B. Drury to Fred Packard, February 12, 1947 and Bartlett to Packard, February 3, 1947, Katmai, 1/1940-4/30/1953, Box 117, Classified Files, Records of the Regional Director, RG 79, FARC, San Bruno.

57. When the Interior Department discussed setting aside Shishaldin Volcano in 1949, Ernest Gruening opposed it on the grounds that the Service had "done nothing with the areas it has." Gruening to William E. Warne, Jan. 31, 1949, National Parks and Monuments, 9-1-13, Records of the Office of Territories, RG 126, N.A.

58. Interview of George Collins, November 18, 1983; Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1946, in Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1946, p. 336; Newton B. Drury to Ernest Gruening, November 4, 1949, Alaska Development, Box 1, Papers of Newton B. Drury, RG 79, N.A. Collins was one of the earliest and most influential advocates of an expanded National Park Service presence in Alaska.

59. Black, "History of Glacier Bay," p. 68; John M. Holzworth to John F. Kennedy, August 22, 1962, L-58, Admiralty Island, Records of the Office of the Regional Director, Region 4, FARC, San Bruno. Holzworth, a recognized expert on the brown bear, led the effort to establish Admiralty Island as a preserve. This long letter to the president details that effort. See also Lawrence Rakestraw, History of the United States Forest Service in Alaska (Anchorage: Alaska Historical Commission, 1981), pp. 113-16.

60. "Notes on Proposed Glacier Bay National Park," February 17, 1932, Monuments, Glacier Bay, part 5, 2/9/1927 - 1/3/1933, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.; "Report on Glacier Bay National Park (Proposed), Alaska," December [1938], by John Coffman and Joseph S. Dixon, 1-9-93, National Parks and Monuments, RG 126, N.A.; '"Report of an Inspection of Admiralty Island Alaska," July 31, 1942, Admiralty Island, Proposed National Parks, 0-32, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A. Some, apparently, felt that the results of those reports were dictated by political considerations rather than by an analysis of the resources of Admiralty Island. Interview of George Collins, Nov. 18, 1983.

61. Conrad L. Wirth to F.E. Masland, Jr., Feb. 12, 1963, L-58, Admiralty Island, Records of the Office of Regional Director, Region 4, RG 79, FARC, San Bruno.

62. John M. Holzworth to President Kennedy, August 22, 1963; A Bill to Establish Admiralty Island National Preserve in the State of Alaska and for other purposes, 95th cong., 1st sess., 1977.

The addition of 1,000,000 acres to Glacier Bay National Monument in 1939 was, in part, an alternative to establishment of an Admiralty Island National Park. Black, "Glacier Bay," p. 68; Newton B. Drury to [_____], January 6, 1947. L-58, Admiralty Island, Proposed National Parks, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A. Additionally, the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife recommended establishment of an Admiralty Island National Refuge as part of a general evaluation of critical wildlife habitat in Alaska in 1971. 2050-Admiralty Island, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO.

63. "Brief Chronology of Consideration for adding Lake George, Alaska to the National Park System," October 3, 1958, L-58, Proposed Areas—Lake George, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve; "Lake George Merits National Park Status," Anchorage Daily Times, May 10, 1967, State Files, Office of Legislation, WASO; "National Registry of Natural Landmarks Presentation, Lake George Alaska," July 26, 1968, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers.

64. For greater detail on the history of the Wrangell-Saint Elias mountain region, see Michael Lappen, 'Whose Promised Land? A History of Conservation and Development Management Plans for the Wrangell and St. Elias Mountains Regions, Alaska, 1938-1980" (M.A. Thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1984).

65. Rakestraw, Forest Service in Alaska, p. 113; "International Park Proposed Between Alaska and Canada," Christian Science Monitor, July 17, 1937, File 0-30, Part 3, Foreign Parks, Canada, General Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.; Lappen, "Whose Promised Land," pp. 32-34; Gruening, Many Battles, p. 245. Gruening, who like many Alaskans, and Americans elsewhere, saw parks as a way of stimulating the economy of an area, was particularly concerned here with economic problems that he feared would result from the impending closure of the Kennicott Copper Mine near McCarthy.

66. "Report on Proposed Alaska National Park," September 1, 1938, by John D. Coffman and Harry J. Leik," Park Files, Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park/Preserve.

67. Gruening to Newton B. Drury, Nov. 8, 1938, Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park/Preserve files.

68. Franklin D. Roosevelt to Harold L. Ickes, January 21, 1941, Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park/Preserve files.

69. Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?", pp. 43-44. It did not kill NPS interest in the area, however.

70. Doris F. Leonard to Theodor R. Swem, Sept. 24, 1970, Historical Files, Wrangell/Saint Elias National Park/Preserve; Interview of George Collins, Nov. 18, 1983; Data Book, Wrangell-Saint Elias, vol. 2, Park Files, Wrangell/Saint Elias National Park/Preserve; USDI, NPS, "Draft Environmental Statement, Proposed Alaska National Park Alaska," February 10, 1972, History of NPS in Alaska, Swem Papers; USDI, NPS, Parks for America A Survey of Park and Related Resources in the Fifty States, and a Preliminary Plan (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964), p. 350; USDI, NPS, Operation Great Land (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1965), p. 11; "Alaska A Plan for Action," 1966, by Roger Allin Brown Files, ARO; "The National Park Service Program in Alaska," October 1967, History of NPS in Alaska, Swem Papers; Wrangell Mountains National Monument," October 2, 1968, and "St. Elias Range National Monument," October 2, 1968, Historical files, Brown Papers, ARO; "Priority of Alaska Areas," October 2, 1968, CPP-New Area Studies, Alaska State Files, Office of Legislation, WASO; "Natural Areas in Alaska," July 19, 1971, History of NPS in Alaska, Swem Papers; F.E. Masland, Jr. to George B. Hartzog, Jr., October 17, 1971, Alaska to Native Claims, Ibid.

Additionally, other federal agencies—Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Bureau of Outdoor Recreation—developed proposals for the area. See Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?" pp. 61-67, and "U.S. Forest Service, Recreational Plans, 1971. Maps in Personal Papers of Bailey O. Breedlove, Division of Reference Services, Library and Archives, Harpers Ferry Center (HFC), Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.

71. "Alaska," Undated MS describing NPS interest areas prior to 1956, Doc. no. 002218, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

72. Superintendent Lilley to Regional Director, March 19, 1942, File 0-30, Foreign Parks, Canada, part 4, 12/1/38-12/1944, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.

73. "Statement of National Park Service Activities in Alaska", July 15, 1944, July 1, 1943-June 30, 1944," Alaskan Development Program, Box 1, Director's Office Files, Drury, 1940-51, Central Classified Files, RG 79, N.A.; Public Land Order 12, July 20, 1942, Alaska, Roads and Trails, British Columbia-Alaska Highway, 9-1-55, Classified Files, 1907-51, RG 126, N.A.; T. A. Crerar to Ickes, Dec. 30, 1942, Box 26, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Ickes to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jan. 8, 1943, Conservation Zones, 1-9-55, Classified Files, 1907-51, RG 126, N.A.

74. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1943, pp. 214-15; Interview of Alfred C. Kuehl by Herbert Evison, October 26, 1962, HFC. Conrad L. Wirth, NPS chief of lands, had general supervision over the project as Chairman of the Alaska Highway Land Planning Survey Committee.

75. USDI, NPS, Recreational Resources of the Alaska Highway, and other Roads in Alaska (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1944), pp. 4-70.

76. Warner W. Gardener to Drury, Dec. 13, 1945, Alaska Roads & Trails, British Columbia-Alaska Highway, part 9, 9-1-55, Classified Files, 1907-51, RG 126, N.A.

77. Ann Lage, George Collins: The Art and Politics of Park Planning and Preservation, 1920-1979: An Interview Conducted by Ann Lage in 1978 and 1979, introduction by Lowell Sumner, et. al. (Berkeley: University of California Oral History Project, 1980), p. 177; Interview of Collins, Nov. 18, 1983.

78. USDI, NPS, Alaska Recreation Survey, Part 1, Vol. 1: Economic Aspects of Recreation in Alaska, by William J. Stanton (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1953), p. 1.

79. Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1950, in Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1950, p. 320; Lage, George Collins, pp. 179-81 .

80. USDI, NPS, Alaska Recreation Survey, Part 1, vol. 1, Economic Aspects of Recreation in Alaska, by William J. Stanton; Part 1, Vol. 2; USDI, NPS, Analysis of Alaska Travel with Special Reference to Tourists, by William J. Stanton (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1953); Landscapes of Alaska: Their Geological Evolution, ed. by Howel Williams (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958); Victor Calahane, A Biological Survey of Katmai National Monument (Washington, D.C.; Smithsonian Institution, 1959); USDI, NPS, Preliminary Geographical Survey of the Kongakut-Firth River Area, Alaska-Canada, ed. by William C. Carnes (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1954); USDI, NPS, Alaska Recreation Survey, Part 2, Vol 2, A Recreation Program for Alaska (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1955).

81. USDI, NPS, Alaska Recreation Survey, Preliminary Statement, Arctic Wilderness Park (San Francisco: NPS, 1952); George Collins discussed the history of this area in Lage, George Collins, pp. 188-200.

82. Pearson, Mt. McKinley; Kauffmann, Katmai; Kauffmann, Glacier Bay; Interview of John Kauffmann by Frank Williss, December 5, 1983; Typescript, San Francisco, NPS, 1952; USDI, NPS, Special Study, Alaska History, 1741-1910, Theme XXI, Political and Military Affairs, 1865-1890, The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, by Benjamin F. Gilbert and Charles W. Snell (San Francisco: NPS, 1961). Gilbert provided the historical background, and Snell surveyed the sites.

83. USDI, NPS, Mission 66: To Provide Adequate Protection and Development of the National Park System for Human Use (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1956), passim. See also, Conrad L. Wirth, Parks, Politics and the People (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980), pp. 237-84.

84. Minutes of the meeting of the Alaska Field Committee, June 17-18, 1960, Alaska Field Committee, 1/1/1960-3/31/1960, A 2419, vol. 3, RG 79, FARC, San Bruno, California. Some $205,500 went to Sitka, $1,823,800 to Glacier Bay, $1,150,000 to Katmai, and $1,763,900 to Mount Mckinley.

85. USDI, NPS, Mission 66 Progress Report (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1966), p. 31; Interview of Richard Stenmark by Frank Williss, July 26, 1983; Gruening, Many Battles, p. 456; Superintendent's Monthly Reports, Mount McKinley National Park, May 1963 and December 1964, Park Archives, Denali National Park/Preserve.

86. Mission 66, p. 58; Annual Report of the Director of the National Park Service, 1960, p. 276; 1961, pp. 363-64; Interview of Theodor R. Swem by Frank Williss, June 8, 1983. Mr. Swem transferred to the Park Service's Mid-west Regional Office in 1957 from the Bureau of Reclamation to work on a Mission 66-sponsored identification of areas for inclusion in the park system. Similar positions were established in all regions.

87. Interview of Roger Allin, Jan. 21, 1979. Allin was responsible for preparing state recreation plans for all states included in the NPS's Western Region. Allin had earlier (1959) completed a survey of status and needs of recreation lands in Alaska. "The Status and Need of Recreational Lands in Alaska," by Roger Allin and John F. Bowles (Anchorage, 1959) and "The Need for Recreation Lands in Alaska," by Roger Allin (San Francisco, 1961), Breedlove Papers, HFC.

88. Parks for America, p. 350. Allin did recommend protection for a large number of areas by the state and local governments. Many of these would eventually be given protection under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980.

89. USDI, NPS, Investigation Report of Wood-Tikchik Area, Alaska (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1965); Interview of Roger Allin, January 21, 1979; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; T. R. Swem to Assistant Director [Ben] Thompson, October 1, 1962, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers.

90. Theodor R. Swem, "Outline History of National Park Service Involvement in Alaska." April 1982, typescript in possession of author; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983. Olson, a well-known author and conservationist, served as a special consultant on wilderness for both Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall and NPS Director Conrad L. Wirth.

91. Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983; Minutes of the 1963 Annual Meeting of the Governing Council of the Wilderness Society at Camp Denali, Mt. McKinley National Park, Alaska, July 1 to July 6, 1963 . . ., Conservationists Involvement in Alaska, TWS—thru 1975, Swem Papers. At this date the Service only had one ranger on duty at Katmai.

92. John M. Kauffmann to Norman C. Dyhrenfurth, November 24, 1964, Alaska Travel, Swem and others, Swem Papers; Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983; Mission 66 Project Report, p. 53. The film, "Magnificance in Trust," was a Mission 66 project.

93. [John Kauffmann], "Blind Memo," [1964], copy provided the author by Mr. Kauffmann. "Cheechako" is an Alaskan name for newcomer. It is not intended to be endearing.

94. Mission 66 Progress Report, p. 2; National Park Service Newsletter, December 29, 1966. Hartzog's "Parkscape USA," was a long-range program designed to cope with increasing public demand on the national parks, and to meet responsibilities that President Lyndon B. Johnson called the "new conservation".

95. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr. by Frank Williss, December 7, 1983.

96. Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; Interview of George Collins, November 18, 1983; Interview of Stanley Albright by Frank Williss, June 29, 1984. As a member of the Governing Council of The Wilderness Society, moreover, Swem had a particular interest in protection of wilderness areas.

97. George B. Hartzog, Jr. to George L. Collins, Nov. 13, 1964, Alaska Travel, Swem and others, Swem Papers; Interview of George Collins Nov. 18, 1983. Similar task forces looked at other areas in the country.

98. George Collins, who had retired from the Park Service in 1960, served as chairman. Robert Luntey had worked with Collins on the Alaska Recreation Survey. Other were Sigurd Olson and Doris F. Leonard, who was Collins' partner in a private conservation venture, Conservation Associates. John Kauffmann, who served as editorial assistant, played a larger part than that title implies.

99. Operation Great Land, PP. 5, 6, 54, 63. The cost of an adequate NPS role, they estimated, would be a minimum of $150,000,000 over a ten-year period.

100. T.R. Swem to Assistant Director [Ben] Thompson, Oct. 1, 1962, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; [Kauffmann], "Blind Memo," [1964].

101. "Alaska, A Plan for Action," 1966, typescript in Brown Files, ARO. Allin called for establishment of four additional areas, Wood-Tikchik (recreation area), Saint Elias-Wrangell mountains (National Park), Alatna region (National Park), and Lake Clark Pass (National Monument). Other recommendations included establishment of a NPS "Office of Alaska Affairs," and early attention to the Landmark Program.

102. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Federal Field Committee, Economic Development in Alaska A Report to the President (Washington D.C.: GPO, 1966). A joint federal-state committee, the Federal Field Committee was formed to assist the state in long-range economic planning and development. It grew out of the Federal Reconstruction and Planning Commission, established to assist in rebuilding Alaska following the disasterous earthquake of March 27, 1964.

103. George B. Hartzog, Jr. to Robert S. Luntey, January 21, 1965. ARO, Central Files, Inactive, ARO.

104. National Park Service Newsletter, 3, no. 21 (Oct. 17, 1968), p. 1; Everhart, National Park Service (1972), p. 239; USDI, NPS, The National Park Service Program in Alaska (October 1967), Historical Files, Brown Files, ARO. In 1967 a contemplated ten-year development program for Alaska included $10,651,000 for Glacier Bay, $7,810,000 for Katmai, $23,768,000 for Mt. McKinley, and $367,400 for Sitka.

105. Theodor R. Swem to Ray Freeman and Chet Brown, June 14, 1966, Inter-office memoranda, sent, Swem Papers.

106. "Trip Report by Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Accompanying the Advisory Board . . . on Field Trip—July 30 to August 10, 1965, in Alaska," Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; "Press Conference, August 1, 1965, Juneau, Alaska, Secretary Stewart Udall, and Governor William A. Egan," Ibid.; "Summary Minutes of Meetings held in Alaska on August 4, 1965, August 8, 1965," Ibid.; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., Dec. 7, 1983. The presence of Secretary Udall for a part of the trip was an unexpected bonus. His trip undoubtedly contributed to his interest in the state and in establishing additional areas there.

107. Theodor R. Swem to George B. Hartzog, Jr., March 20, 1964, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; Governor's Briefing Book; October 10, 1967, Historical Files, Brown Files, ARO; Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983. The meeting was set up by Joseph Fitzgerald, chairman of the Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska.

108. Entry of Aug. 8, 1965, Swem Diary, Swem Papers; Theodor Swem to George B. Hartzog, Jr., Sept. 21, 1965, Follow-up slips, sent, Ibid.; Swem to William J. Briggle, Nov. 18, 1965, Personal Correspondence, Ibid.; Swem to Regional Director, April 13, 1966, Alaska up to Native Claims, Ibid.; Interview of Merrill Mattes by Frank Williss, June 21, 1983; Interview of Bailey O. Breedlove by Frank Williss, Nov. 10, 1983. Smith was ill, and died a short while later.

109. Swem to Senator Bartlett, Dec. 20, 1966, New Area Studies, 1966-1967, Alaska State Files, Office of Legislation, WASO; Harthon L. Bill to Regional Director, Western Region, May 25, 1967, Alaska Up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; Interview of Merrill Mattes, June 21, 1983; Interview of Bailey Breedlove, November 10, 1983. In the winter the superintendent of Mt. McKinley was in the Anchorage Office as well.

110. Bill to Director, Western Region, May 25, 1967; Alaska News Review, February 16, 1970; National Park Service Newsletter, vol. 6, no. 17, August 21, 1971; Anchorage Daily Times, March 31, 1972, Robert Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, Denver Public Library (DPL). Although the Pacific Northwest Regional Office had been established in early 1970, it was not fully staffed until 1971 . In 1972 the Service established the position of state director for Alaska, located in Anchorage. The state director (Stanley T. Albright) had administrative control of all NPS affairs in Alaska, save planning under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. Under a 1975 reorganization, the Alaska Area Office assumed control of that function.

111. John Rutter to George Hall, July 26, 1967, L7019-General, ARO Central Files-Inactive, ARO. The state coordinator program was a nationwide one. In terms of operation, superintendents of Glacier Bay and Sitka had full responsibility for their areas.

112. Glen T. Been to Regional Director, Western Region, June 19, 1967, Historical Files—Old Kasaan, Brown Files, ARO; Harry B. Robinson to Bailey Breedlove and Richard Praesil, August 12, 1969, Historical Files—Kobuk-Koyukuk, Ibid.; "Suggested Program for Alaska submitted by the Park Planner for the Alaska Field Office for 1967-1968 Calendar Years," October 1967, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; Interview of Merrill Mattes, June 21, 1983; Robert S. Luntey to Bailey Breedlove, April 24, 1969, Historical Files-Alaska General, Brown Files, ARO.

113. USDI, NPS, The Island of Attu Alaska: A Study of Alternatives (San Francisco: NPS, 1968).

114. USDI, NPS, "A Master Plan for Mount Mckinley National Park" (San Francisco: NPS, 1969 [draft], p. 46. The report was never signed, but in May 1969, Representative John Saylor introduced H.R. 11424, a bill that included the recommended changes. Ibid., Appendix B. Illustration 3 is a map showing the proposed additions. Adolph Murie, whose work Wolves of Mt. McKinley (1944) remains a classic, had long recommended boundary adjustments and in 1965 a chapter of the Pioneers of Alaska recommended a 2,500-square mile boundary extension. Murie, "An Important North Boundary Adjustment," undated MS [1965], and Igloo no. 4, Pioneers of Alaska to Stewart Udall, September 20, 1965, L1417, Acquisition and Disposal of Lands, Park Files, Denali National Park/Preserve.

15. USDI, NPS, Special Report on a Reconnaissance of the Upper Kokuk-Koukuk Region Brooks Range, Northern Alaska (San Francisco: NPS Office of Resource Planning], 1969), p. 32. The name suggested by Mattes—"Gates of the Arctic"—had been, of course, coined originally by Robert Marshall, who explored and did much to publicize the area. The term applies to two mountains along the North Fork of the Koyukuk River.

116. Interview of Merrill Mattes June 21, 1983; "Master Plan Brief for Katmai National Monument," 1967; USDI, NPS A Master Plan for Proposed Old Kodiak National Memorial (San Francisco: NPS, 1967); USDI, NPS, Alaska Cultural Complex A Reconnaissance Report (San Francisco: NPS , 1969); Theodor Swem to Russell Dickinson, May 11, 1967, follow-up slips, sent, Swem Papers; Robert S. Luntey to District Director, Northwest District, July 15, 1969, Breedlove Papers, HFC; Interview of John Rutter by Frank Williss, May 16, 1984.

117. Richard Prasil to Regional Director, Western Region, June 6, 1966, Historical Files-Alaska General, Brown Files, ARO.

118. Ibid; "National Landmark Studies," ANILCA Proposals, Natural Landmark Studies - Non-Park Service, Park Files, Denali National Park/Preserve. Evaluation of the volcanic sites were published as part of a nation-wide study, USDI, NPS, The Works of Volcanism: Sites >Recommended as Potential Natural Landmarks, by Robert H. Rose (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1977).

119. Telephone Interview of Frank Ugolini, by Frank Williss, June 23, 1983; "Establishment of Natural Landmarks and New Units of the National Park System," undated MS, Natural Landmarks Briefs, Library, Rocky Mountain Regional Office, Denver.

120. USDI, NPS, The arctic lowland region: natural potential landform and lifeform national landmarks, by Robert L. Detterman Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1977). Volcanic studies, as mentioned, would be published as part of a nation-wide survey in 1977.

121. Federal Register, vol. 48, no. 4, (March 1, 1983), pp. 8682-683; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983. Important in this effort, too, would be knowledge of historical and archeological areas identified by Charles Snell and Arthur A. Woodward in 1961.

122. United States Department of the Interior, Press Release, June 27, 1969, Alaska National Parks Study Committee, Swem Papers; Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983; Stenmark to Co-chairman/Files, August 31, 1977, L-48, Director of Professional Services, Box 17, Alaska Task Force Files, FARC, Seattle; Ronald Remykoff, "Preliminary Report, Alaska Parks and Monuments Advisory Committee, Final Draft," undated report in APA-MAC Preliminary Report, Richard Stenmark Files, HFC; "Proposals and Potential Areas in Alaska for Study and Review," September 15, 1970, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers. The Advisory Committee itself had no impact, and in fact, never held a meeting. However, Stenmark's work would be an important contribution to the Service's knowledge of Alaska.

123. Ernest J. Borgman to Director, Pacific Northwest Region, January 21, 1971, Stenmark Files, HFC. The Park Service was the lead agency in preparing the recreation and tourism section of the land use chapter of the two-volume report, published in 1971 . Alaska Recreation and Tourism Resources, Land Use Chapter, "Interim Economic Development Plan for Alaska", prepared for the Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska by the Alaska Office, NPS, February 5, 1971, Xerox copy in Technical Information Center, Denver Service Center.

124. "National Park System Alaska Plan, Summary," November 17, 1971, Exhibit 48-a, Cook Inlet Lawsuit Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; USDI, NPS, National Park System Plan, 2 vols. (Washington, D. C. GPO, 1970). The studies were done in accordance with Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall's Policy Guidelines for National Park Service, June 18, 1969. The National Park System Plan divided the system into historical and natural areas. Each category was sub-divided into themes. It was hoped that this would provide for a more orderly "rounding out" of the National Park System.

125. Press Conference, August 1, 1965, Juneau, Alaska, Secretary Stewart Udall and Governor William A. Egan, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; Lewis A. [Sigler] to Senator Ernest Gruening, February 14, 1967, W-38, Legislative Support Data, Glacier Bay, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Richard Stenmark to Co-chairman/Files, L-58, Division of Professional Services File, Box 17, Alaska Task Force Files, FARO, Seattle; "Alaska," undated MS, document 002262, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Robert J. Branges to Files, April 30, 1969, Alaska to Native Claims, Swem Papers; U.S. Congress, House, A Bill to provide for the addition of certain lands to the Mount McKinley National Park in the state of Alaska and for other purposes, H.R. 11424, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 1969; and H.R. 11423, A Bill to Establish Gates of the Arctic National Park . . .

126. Theodor R. Swem to James Hamilton, June 23, 1969, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; Swem to James Hamilton, June 23, 1969, Ibid; Whitehorse Star, Sept. 4, 1969, Skagway through 1970, Park Files, Klondike National Historical Park, Skagway, Alaska; "Outline of Program for Possible International Historic Park in Alaska, British Columbia and Yukon Territory" confidential MS, September 4, 1969, Xerox provided author by Theodor Swem. Sigard Olson had mentioned a park in Skagway as early as 1963 and had lobbied with the Secretary's Advisory Board since then to gain their support for such a project.

127. Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; Russell E. Train to Secretary of Interior, September 15, 1969, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; Draft of letter to Speaker of the House, January 28, 1972, Ibid.; George B. Hartzog, Jr. to Secretary of the Interior, January 14, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Ibid.; Department of State Briefing Papers, April 1972, Ibid.; USDI, NPS, A Conceptual Master Plan (modified) for the Proposed Alaska National Park (Denver: NPS, 1972). (Illustration 5 is a map of the proposed park). The story of the proposed Alaska National Park is a fascinating one, far too complex to be studied here. Hopefully, it will be examined in depth at a future date.

128. Information on this complex series of events is examined in USDI, NPS, "History of the Johnson Proclamations, 1968-69," by James A. Husted, Sept. 9, 1970, Alaska to Native Claims, Swem Papers and Box 39, WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Five Versions: Why LBJ Changed His Mind on Parks," Washington, D.C., Evening Star, Jan. 27, 1969; Robert Cahn, "How National Park Plan Slipped Away," Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 23, 1969, pp. 1-4; John P. Crevelli, "The Final Act of the Greatest Conservation President," Prologue: The Journal of the National Archives VII (Winter 1980), pp. 173-84; Interview of Theodor R. Swem June 8, 1983; Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., Dec. 7, 1983.

129. Crevelli, "Greatest Conservation President," p. 176; Stewart Udall to Solicitor, Acting Assistant Secretary Clarence Pautzke, and Director Hartzog, September 4, 1968. Quoted in Husted, "Johnson Proclamations." p. l.

130. Husted, "Johnson Proclamations," p. 1 . The original six Alaska areas proposed were Mount McKinley (lands adjacent to park), Wrangell Mountains, St. Elias Range, Lake Clark, Gates of the Arctic, and St. Lawrence Island. Other areas later considered were additions to Katmai National Monument and the Wood-Tikchik area.

131. Husted, "History of the Johnson Proclamations," pp. 15, 12; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983. The name, "Gates of the Arctic," not the resources in the area, determined the configuration of that proposed monument. Accepting BLM objections to the east unit, Secretary Udall decided on a single-unit monument (west unit). When he learned that the geological formation bearing that name was in the east unit, he reversed himself in order to name the area "Gates of the Arctic." Otherwise the proposal would have been a one-unit Arctic Circle National Monument.

132. So sure were Park Service officials that the president would sign all seven proclamations they had mailed press releases and information packets to all Park Service units and offices on January 18. The next day Theodor Swem called each one telling them to hold the material. A second call went out the following day instructing each office to destroy the material, unopened. Husted, "Johnson Proclamations," p. 15; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983.

133. These are reasons given by authors listed in footnote 128. George Hartzog accepts the last reason, on the basis of discussion he had with Wayne Aspinall shortly thereafter. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983.

134. Husted, "Johnson Proclamation," p. 15; Crevelli, "Greatest Conservation President," p. 104. President Johnson had already dressed for the inauguration when he signed the proclamations. The Service had been interested in an extension to Katmai that would have included Naknek Lake for some time. "Recommendations for Boundary Revision, Katmai National Monument," by Lowell Sumner, October 21, 1952, HFC; George B. Hartzog to Walter J. Hickel, December 7, 1967, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers.

1. PL 96-487, Dec. 2, 1980; "Alaska Summary, PL 96-487," January 26, 1981, Doc. 02686, ANILCA Papers, Law Library.

2. Mary Clay Berry, The Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1975), pp. 29-30; Everhart, National Park Service, pp. 252-54.

3. PL 85-508, July 7, 1958; Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 27. Had Congress applied the formula used for other western states--1,290 acres out of each township of the public domain for the support of schools, Alaska would have received about 2,000,000 acres.

4. By the way of comparison, Montana received 10 percent of the public domain in its borders, Arizona 15.6 percent, New Mexico 16.43 percent, Nevada 3.8 percent, Utah 13.8 percent, and Colorado 16.43 percent. "Land granted to states from the public domain," January 7, 1975, Background Briefs, Harry Crandell Papers, Conservation Library, Denver Public Library.

5. PL 85-508, July 7, 1958; Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 28. Other states received 37.5 percent of the revenues. The federal government received 10 percent, and the remainder (52.5 percent) went to the federal reclamation fund. Since Alaska is not a reclamation state, the state received ninety percent of the mineral lease revenues.

6. Robert D. Arnold, et al., Alaska Native Land Claims (Anchorage: Alaska Native Foundation, 19), p. 94.

7. Quoted in Ibid., p. 103. A bill to settle Native claims to the land had been introduced as early as 1940.

8. Barry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 31. Natives later won compensatory payment from the United States in one of those cases--the Tlingit-Haida case.

9. P.L. 85-508.

10. Lappan, "Whose Promised Land?", p. 51.

11. John V. Krutilla and Sterling Brubaker, Alaska National Interest Lands and Their Opportunity Costs (Washington, D.C.: Resources for Future, 1976), p. 3; "Brief Chronology of Events Related to State Selections," February 14, 1978, Box 14, Papers of the Alaska Coalition, Conservation Library, Denver Public Library; State of Alaska, Department of Natural Resources, "Alaska State Land Selection Program, Its History and Guidelines," May 15, 1978, Box 7, Albert Henson Papers, Conservation Library, Denver Public Library. Less than 5,000,000 acres had been patented to the state by the end of the decade.

12. RWA [Roger Allin], "Note," December 18, 1961, Breedlove Papers, HFC; Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 33; Arnold, Native Land Claims, pp. 100-101.

13. Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 43.

14. Arnold, Native Land Claims, pp. 94-95.

15. Quoted in Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?" p. 68.

16. The story of the organization of Alaskan Natives, which is a remarkable one, is told in Arnold, Native Land Claims.

17. Arnold, Native Land Claims, p. 102.

18. Ibid., p. 103; [Philleo] Nash to Legislative Council, May 10, 1963, ANILCA before 1969, Rights Protection Division, Bureau of Indian Affairs, USDI. The latter is a draft of a bill similar in most respects to the recommendations of Secretary Udall's Task Force. The bill, unlike the report, included guarantees for mineral rights on lands for which the Natives would have assumed title, and would have given them cause for action in the U.S. District Courts "for the value of rights and occupancy of which they have been deprived by laws of the United States."

19. Berry, Alaska Pipeline, pp. 49, 61; Arnold, Native Land Claims, pp. 117, 125. Secretary Udall formalized the 'freeze' in Public Land Order 4582 on February 17, 1969. Federal Register, 34 (January 23, 1969), p. 1045.

When Walter J. Hickel, who as Governor of Alaska had vociferously opposed Udall's action, was nominated as Secretary of the Interior, he intimated he would overturn the "freeze," saying, "what Udall can do by executive order I can undo." To gain support of Natives and conservationists for his nomination, however, he promised to retain the freeze. It was extended on Dec. 7, 1970 (Public Land Order 4962), June 24, 1971 (Public Land Order 5081), and December 7, 1971 (Public Land Order 5146).

20. Arnold, Native Land Claims, p. 119.

21. Memo to Commissioner Bennett, Irving Senzel, Frank Hutchinson, July 26, 1971, ANILCA before 1969, Rights Protection Division, BIA, USDI.

22. Arnold, Native Land Claims p. 119.

23. John McPhee, Coming into the Country (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977), p. 152; Quoted in Arnold, Native Land Claims, p. 136.

24. Hanrahan and Gruenstein, Marketing of Alaska, p. 95; State of Alaska, Legislative Affairs Agency, Alaska National Interest (D-2) Lands A History and Review of Legislation, (Juneau: Legislative Affairs Agency, 1977), p. 1. In 1970 a federal district court judge ruled that the pipeline could not be laid across the Yukon River Valley until the land claims of the Natives there were satisfied.

25. Minutes of the 1963 Annual Meeting of the Council of the Wilderness Society at Camp Denali . . . July 1 to 6, 1963 . . ., Conservationists Involvement with Alaska—TWS thru 1975, Swem Papers.

26. Robert Cahn, The Fight to save Wild Alaska (Washington D.C.: The Audubon Society, 1982), p. 10; Interview of Bailey Breedlove, November 10, 1983; Interview of David Hickock by Frank Williss, November 10, 1983; Interview of Celia Hunter by Frank Williss, November 7, 1983; Statement of Mark Ganapole, in U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands, Inclusion of Alaska Lands in National Park, Forest, Wildlife Refuge, and Wild and Scenic Rivers Systems, Hearings on H.R. 39, et al., 95th Cong., 1st sess., August 12, 1977, XI:100-103. The group, which met evenings and weekends at the urging of Mark Ganapole (now Mrs. David Hickock), called themselves the "The Living Room Floor Map and Debating Society."

One area that the Alaska Wilderness Council recommended was a 7,767,600-acre park in the Brooks Range. "Gates of the Arctic National Park A Proposal for a National Park in the Brooks Range," 1971, A58-GAAR, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO.

227. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 10; Edgar Wayburn to George B. Hartzog, Jr., August 10, 1970, Alaska up to Native Claims, Swem Papers; Telephone Interview Doug Scott by Frank Williss, May 10, 1984.

When the Sierra Club presented its suggestions for possible national monuments to the Interior Department in 1968, the twenty-seven potential areas included none in Alaska. Husted, "History of the Johnson Proclamations," p. 7.

228. Wilderness Report, VI (September 15, 1969), Historical Files—Old Kasaan, Brown Files, ARC; Interview of Celia Hunter, November 7, 1983; Interview of Merrill Mattes, June 21, 1983; untitled MS by Richard J. Gordon, March 12, 1969, ARC Central Files - Inactive ARO. Gordon recommended among other things, a two-unit park of 8,600 square miles (approximately 5,504,000 acres) in the Brooks Range that would become the first preserve in the National Park System.

Mattes, who was in Fairbanks when news of discovery of oil on the North Slope was announced, remembers discussing with his collegues that preservation of wilderness areas would be more urgent than ever.

229. Interview of Celia Hunter, November 7, 1983; Interview of David Hickock, November 10, 1983; Interview of Chuck Clusen by Frank Williss, December 6, 1983.

30. Jack Hessian, "D-2 Lands Originated with Federal Field Committee," September 17, 1974, Alaska Regional Office Clipping File, Special Collections Division, DPL; Interview of David Hickock, Nov. 10, 1983.

31. Federal Field Committee Economic Development in Alaska, p. 27. Similar sentiments were at least implied in the Committee's 1968 report, Alaska Natives and the Land (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968), prepared by the committee at the request of the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs for use in Congressional deliberations on Alaska Native claims.

32. Interview of David Hickock, November 10, 1983.

33. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 11; Interview of David Hickock, November 10, 1983. Cahn indicates that Hickock wrote the provision in 1970. However, Hickcock said that the date was 1969. Whatever the year, it was not included in the bill as introduced on April 15, 1969. U.S., Congress, Senate, A Bill to provide for the settlement of certain land claims of Alaska Natives, and for other purposes, S. 1830, 91st Cong., 1st sess, 1969.

34. Congressional Record, Senate, January 15, 1970, p. 24424.

35. Mary Berry offers a fascinating view of events in the House committee during the final days. Alaska Pipeline, pp. 134-37.

36. George Alderson (for the Alaska Coalition) to Dear Senator, October 28, 1971, form letter in support of an amendment proposed by Senator Alan Bible, H.R. 10367 (S 35), Legislative Files, Papers of Alan Bible, Special Collections Library, University of Nevada-Reno, Reno, Nevada; Statement of Dr. Edgar Wayburn, in U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Alaska National Interest Lands, Hearings on S. 1687 . . . et al., 94th Cong., 1st sess., 1975, p. 191.

Organizations listed in the Alderson letter were Environmental Action, Friends of the Earth, the Wilderness Society, National Wildlife Federation, Sierra Club, Zero Population Growth, Alaska Action Committee, and Trout Unlimited. Dr. Wayburn listed the Alaska Conservation Society, Alaska Wilderness Council, Alaska Center for the Environment in Anchorage, Fairbanks Environmental Center, National Audubon Society, National Parks and Conservation Association, Defenders of Wildlife, Friends of the Earth, American Rivers Conservation Council, Wilderness Society, and Sierra Club.

37. "Statement on H.R. 3100 and Related Bills to Provide for Settlement of Certain Land Claims of Alaska Natives by Stewart M. Brandborg, House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, May 3, 1971," Conservationists Involvement in Alaska—TWS Thru 1975, Swem Papers; U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, To Provide for the Settlement of Certain Land Claims of Alaska Natives, Hearings on H.R. 3100, H.R. 7038, H.R. 7432, 93rd Cong., 1st sess., May 1971, pp. 335-41; Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 166; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 11; Telephone Discussion with Harry Crandell, March 20, 1984.

Congressman John Dingell, moreover, asked the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife to develop "an optimum refuge system for Alaska," and that bureau had undertaken an effort to inventory and document waterfowl and wildlife areas in the state. Congressman Wayne Aspinall opposed Dingell's efforts. "Notes on Meeting with Congressman John Dingell and Legislative Committee Counsel Ned Everett--October 28, 1971," Fish and Wildlife Service, Swem Papers; Gordon Watson to All Project Leaders, June 4, 1971, Ibid.; R.L. Means, "Materials transmitted to Aspinall", October 19, 1971, Ibid.

38. U.S., Congress, House, Hearings on H.R. 39, . . ., 1977, V: 16.

39. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983. Hartzog had intended to go to Alaska in any case, at the urging of staff of the Alaska Office.

40. Trip Itinerary, August 7-22, 1971, "H.R. 10367 (S. 35), Amendment to Alaska Native Claims Settlement for review by Secretary of the Interior, of classified and public lands," Legislative Files, Bible Papers; Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 10, 1983; Interview of John Rutter, May 16, 1984. Pacific Northwest Regional Director Rutter, and Sierra Club President Edgar Wayburn traveled with the group for a time, as did Deputy Director Thomas Flynn.

41. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Theodor R. Swem, Personal Notes, January 18 and 27, 1972, Swem Papers; George B. Hartzog, Jr. to Rogers C. B. Morton, March 6, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; George B. Hartzog, Jr. to Nathaniel P. Reed, November 22, 1971, Ibid; Interview of John Cook by Frank Williss, January 26, 1984. Mr. Cook, who received his information from a discussion with Senator Bible, substantiated Mr. Hartzog's account.

42. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Hartzog to Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, November 22, 1971, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; Hartzog to Rogers C.B. Morton, March 6, 1972, Ibid.; Interview of Harry Crandell by Frank Williss, December 7, 1983; "Potential National Parks and Monuments in Alaska," undated map in Swem Papers; Diary of Theodor R. Swem, entries for November 15 and 19, 1971, Swem Papers. The map, which is included as Illustration 3 was prepared for Mr. Hartzog's use between November 15 and 19, 1971.

43. Bernard R. Meyer to Director, August 26, 1971, L-58-170 (N), Alaska State Files, Office of Legislation, WASO. This memo, which explained what actions the secretary could take to implement Hartzog's suggestion, described the August 14 memorandum.

44. Information given by Mr. Hartzog to Edwin C. Bearss, Chief Historian, National Park Service; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983. Apparently, for some unexplained reason, two different versions of an amendment were prepared. No copy of either was found.

45. Comments by Senator Bible on amendment to S. 35, Congressional Record, Senate, November 1, 1971, p. 38451; Telephone discussion with Harry Crandell, March 20, 1984; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 11; Telephone Interview of Doug Scott, May 10, 1984. Wayburn, who approached Senator Bible after the September 1971 Sierra Club Biannual Wilderness Conference, had traveled for a time with Senator Bible and George Hartzog in Alaska in August.

46. Material consulted, as well as individuals contacted did not provide a definitive answer to this question. Among those contacted were George Hartzog, Thomas Flynn, Theodor Swem, James M. Lambe, Doug Scott, Senator Bible, and three former congressional staff members—Bill Van Ness, Roy Whitacre, and Dwight Dyer.

One version of the events suggests that Park Service staff prepared a draft amendment, but did not give it to Senator Bible when it was learned that the conservation community had previously submitted one. It has not been possible to confirm this version.

47. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Personal Notes of Theodor Swem, January 18 and 27, March 9, 1972; Hartzog to Rogers C.B. Morton, March 6, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers.

48. Congressional Record, Senate, November 1, 1971, p. 38453. Director Hartzog and Senator Bible visited all three areas the previous >August.

49. Congressional Record, Senate, December 14, 1971, p. 2156.

50. Virtually everyone has agreed that Senator Bible's amendment was directly related to the trip. See, for example, comments by Morris Udall, Congressional Record, House, December 13, 1971, p. 12462; Comments by Henry Jackson, Congressional Record, Senate, December 14, 1971; and comments by Ted Stevens, Congressional Record, Senate, November 1, 1971, p. 38453.

51 . "Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, Public Law 92-203, December 18, 1973," by Robert E. Price, January 13, 1972, ANCSA, Box 20, Alaska Task Force Files, FARC, Seattle.

52. Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 185; Telephone discussion with Paul Kirton, April 27, 1983; U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Providing for the Settlement of Land Claims of Alaska Natives: Report Together with a Dissenting View to Accompany HR 10367, 92d Cong., 1st sess., September 28, 1971. The committee accepted arguments that the provision was not germane, and defeated it by a vote of 26-10.

53. The Kyl amendment excluded Native and state selections, as well as land for the oil pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez. Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 186; Congressional Record, House, October 20, 1971, p. 37075.

54. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 12; Interview of Harry Crandell by Frank Williss, December 7, 1983; Interview of Chuck Clusen, December 6, 1983; Interview of David Hickock, November 10, 1983. There is some disagreement as to the amount of land agreed upon at the meeting. Cahn indicates that Udall decided upon 100,000,000 million acres, 50,000,000 less than that proposed by Stewart Brandborg. Dave Hickock recalls that an 80,000,000-acre figure was reached at that time.

Regardless, negotiations between Udall and Saylor regarding the amount would follow. After these negotiations, 100,000,000 acres was the agreed upon amount. Telephone interview of Doug Scott, May 11, 1984. Scott acted as a go-between in the negotiations between Udall and Saylor.

55. U.S., Congress, House, A Bill to Provide for the Settlement of Certain Land Claims of Alaska Natives, and for Other Purposes, H.R. 11254, 92d Cong., 1st sess., 1971; Congressional Record, House, October 14, 1971, pp. 36267, 36270; October 20, 1971, p. 37075.

56. Ibid. Among the areas previously classified were Rampart Dam withdrawal, Naval Petroleum Reserve Numbered 4, Copper River classification, Iliamna Classification, and proposed Brooks Range classification. The last three were classified for multiple-use under the Classification and Multiple Use Act of 1964 (which expired December 23, 1970). The classifications placed restrictions on the lands and removed them from operation of certain of the public land laws. George Turcott to Asst. Secretary—PLM, January 28, 1972, 2300 (320) ANCSA, Records of the Bureau of Land Management, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

It must be made clear, however, that Representative Udall intended that the overwhelming majority of lands would go to Park, Refuge, and Wild and Scenic Rivers systems.

57. Congressional Record, House, October 20, 1975, p. 37076. Congressman Nick Begich of Alaska insisted that the total area included was 130,000,000 acres.

58. Congressional Record, House, October 20, 1971, p. 37076.

59. Telephone Interview of Doug Scott, May 11, 1984; Interview of A. Durand Jones by Frank Williss, May 15, 1984.

60. Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 194; Telephone Interview of Doug Scott, May 11, 1984.

61. Congressional Record, Senate, November 1, 1971, p. 38451.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid.

64. Congressional Record, Senate, November 1, 1971, Pp. 38457-453; Arnold, Native Land Claims, p. 145.

65. Berry, Alaska Pipeline, pp. 210-11; Statement of Senator Ted Stevens, Hearings on HR 39, et. al., 1977, I: 116-17; Conference Report to accompany H.R. 10567, p. 34; Telephone discussion with Harry Crandell, March 20, 1984. Efforts to examine the notes kept by the House conferees have been fruitless. Information from staff at the National Archives indicates that Senate Conferees kept no notes.

Interestingly, the 80,000,000-acre figure agreed upon is the same as that George Hartzog and Senator Bible discussed when they returned from Alaska in August.

66. Morris Udall and John Saylor to Rogers C.B. Morton, January 11, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972. This view was accepted by the Interior Department. Swem Papers; Conference Report to accompany H.R. 10367, pp. 44-46; Berry, Alaska Pipeline, pp. 210-11. Senator Bible's amendment, it should be noted, included no limit on the amount of land that could be withdrawn for study.

67. Telephone Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1983; Interview of Dave Hickock, November 10, 1983; Congressional Record, House, October 20, 1971, pp. 33076; "Senator Ted Stevens s comments at Alaska Proposals Briefing, November 8, 1973." ANCSA-Implementation, 1974, Swem Papers.

68. Senator Lee Metcalf once said in a moment of exasperation, "That was a lawsuit we wrote." Quoted in Hanrahan and Gruenstein, Marketing of Alaska, p. 100.

69. P.L. 92-203, Dec. 18, 1971; Frank A. Bracken to Secretary [of the Interior], Dec. 29, 1971, Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, Swem Papers; Paul Kirton, "Summary of Questions and Answers Concerning Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," undated [19721 MS in Ibid. The $962,500,000 would come from Congressional appropriations ($462,500,000 over an eleven-year-period), and mineral revenues from state and federal lands ($500,000,000).

70. Arnold, Native Claims, p. 153; Dean F. Olson, "Native Land and Capital—An Initial Inquiry into Alaska Native Land Claims Settlement Act Corporation," undated MS in File A-22-Ahtna, Mount McKinley Keyman Files, Box 31, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. The corporation concept was first proposed in a bill prepared by Governor Hickel's Task Force in 1978.

71. The 14(h)(1) provision is discussed in chapter 5. See also Melody W. Grauman "The ANCSA 14 (h)(1) Program," CRM Bulletin vol. 3 (Sept. 1979) pp. 4-5.

72. Conference Report to Accompany HR 10367, p. 3.

73. Ibid; "Remarks of Jack Horton . . ., September 28, 1972," A-94-FSLUPC, Box 5, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. One of the four appointed by the governor had to be an Alaska Native.

74. PL 92-203, December 18, 1971; Conference Report to Accompany H.R. 10367, p. 44. Berry, Alaska Pipeline, p. 211-12.

1. Quoted by Undersecretary William Pecora at the first Interior Department meeting regarding ANCSA implementation. Personal notes of Theodor R. Swem, December 22, 1971, Swem Papers; Robert Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 12.

The quote may well be apocryphal. If Secretary Morton did not say it, he should have, for the slogan, or some variety of it, became a symbol in the effort to secure passage of an Alaska National Interest Lands Act.

2. Swem, Personal Notes, December 22, 1971 . Legislative staff in the department and in the several bureaus had followed the progress of the legislation, and had helped, from time to time, in drafting portions of it.

3. Reed to Hartzog and Spencer Smith, confidential memo, December 21, 1971, ANCSA Implementation, 1971 - April 1972, Swem Papers. Two days later the reporting date had been moved forward to "early January." Theodor R. Swem to Assistant Director, Legislation, et al., December 23, 1971, Ibid.

4. Swem to Assistant Director, Legislation, et al., December 23, 1971, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; Swem, Personal Notes, January 27, 1971; Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; F.V. Schmidt to Alaska Area Director [BSF&W], December 22, 1971, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers. >At this point, Swem believed that the job would be a short-term one that would last only through March.

5. The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation did not participate in identifying areas at this stage. The Forest Service proposed withdrawing 79,175,000 acres for study as multiple-use land and an additional 1,500,000 acres for "ecological reserves" on February 3. However, the Interior Department chose to accept the arguments of Representatives Morris Udall and John Saylor that the 80,000,000 acres described in the d-2 provision were intended primarily for additions to the National Park, Wildlife Refuge, and Wild and Scenic Rivers systems. The Forest Service proposals were substantially ignored at this time, although Assistant Secretary Reed did consider allotting 500,000 acres for the National Forest System. "Multiple Use Areas Proposed by the Forest Service for Withdrawal under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," February 3, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; "Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, Task Force Briefing," February 3, 1972, Briefing Notes, ANCSA, 12/18/71-3/16/72, Richard Stenmark Files, HFC; Morris Udall and John Saylor to Rogers C.B. Morton, January 11, 1972, Robert Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Speech of Morris Udall, Congressional Record, House, January 4, 1977, p. E65; Theodor R. Swem to Special Assistant for Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, February 17, 1972, Swem Correspondence, 12/71-6/72, HFC; Swem, Personal Notes, Jan. 10, 1972 and July 31, 1973.

6. This general impression is the result of a review of the documentary material as well as a number of interviews with the people involved.

7. Stenmark had recently been involved in identifying potential areas for Interior Secretary Hickel's Alaska Parks and Monuments Advisory Committee (see pp.- 48-51). He would have assistance from a variety of people at this time. Bailey Breedlove gave advice on boundaries, Merrill Mattes, Zorro Bradley, and James Husted helped draft the justifications necessary. Primary responsibility for the task was Stenmark's, however. Swem to Assistant Director, Legislation, et al., December 23, 1971; Swem, Personal Notes, December 27, 1971; Interview of Al Henson and Swem, June 9, 1983. Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983; "Outline Decision Process Leading to the Morton Recommendations, December 18, 1973," April 17, 1978, Box 34, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Confidential draft justifications of individual areas, January 1972, A-94, NPS, Box 5, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Draft description of NPS activities, May 19, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers. The latter was prepared for use in answering interrogatories in the state of Alaska's lawsuit against Secretary Morton, March 5, 1972.

8. Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983; Suggested timetable, January 3, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers.

9. Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III and Theodor R. Swem by Frank Williss, January 24, 1984.

10. Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983; Nathaniel P. Reed to Undersecretary, January 11, 1972, Swem Correspondence, 12/71-6/72, HFC.

11. Ibid.

12. Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, Areas Suggested for Withdrawal - National Park System, January 7, 1972, BOR, Box 20, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

13. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, "Areas of Significant Wildlife Value," June 19, 1972, A-58-GAAR, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; USDI, FWS, "Implementation of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, FY 75" (preliminary draft, January 1976), A-94-FWS (2), Box 4, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; King and Lensink, Migratory Birds. Total acreage on a June 19 list, which had been compiled before passage of ANCSA was 90,355,845.5 acres. King and Lensink had identified some 135,000,000 acres.

14. Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, Areas Suggested for Withdrawal, January 7, 1972, BOR, Box 20, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Statement of Lynn A. Greenwalt, Director, BSF&W, . . Before the House of Representatives, Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Subcommittee of Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation and the Environment on HR 6564, . . HR 5605 [Admiralty Island National Preserve], . . , June 10, 1977, Box 26, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

15. Nathaniel P. Reed to Undersecretary, January 11, 1972, BOR, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA)," January 10, 1972, map in Swem Papers. Park Service interest areas totalled 44,090,000 acres. Most of the increase over the January 7 recommendations came in a much larger Wrangell-St. Elias area recommendation.

16. Jack Horton to Solicitor, et al., January 26, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; Rogers C.B. Morton to Solicitor, et al., January 17, 1972, Box 3, Cook Inlet Lawsuit Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Horton, then deputy undersecretary and later federal co-chairman of the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission, chaired the land selection task force.

17. Swem, Personal notes, February 10, 1972; Jack Horton to Solicitor, et al., February 9, 1972; Swem Personal Notes, February 10, 1972; Nathaniel P. Reed to Secretary, March 2, 1972, A. Durand Jones Personal Files, Port Angeles, Washington.

18. Jack Horton to Solicitor, et al., January 29, 1972, ANCSA, 12/12/71-3/16/72, Stenmark Files, HFC; "Interior to Discuss Native Claim Plans with Alaska Officials," USDI News Release, January 26, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers.

19. "Additional Areas Suggested for study at the Secretary's briefing for conservation organizations, February 28, 1972," Swem Correspondence, Dec. 1971-June 1972, HFC; Swem, Personal Notes, February 26, 1972, Swem Papers; Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1973. Another area considered as a result of conservationists' input was the White Mountain Forty-Mile region.

Walter Parker, an Alaska conservationist who later served as state co-chairman of the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission, seems to have first suggested including the Noatak.

20. Swem, Personal Notes, March 5 and 8, 1972, Swem Papers; Curtis E. Bohlen III to Assistant Secretary, Public Land Management, March 23, 1972, Mt. McKinley, Box 1, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?" p. 81.

21. Rogers C.B. Morton to Carl Albert, June 21, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, Box 3, Cook Inlet Lawsuit Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. This document was the Secretary's first six month's report on ANCSA implementation.

22. Burton Silcock, director of the Bureau of Land Management and later federal co-chairman of the Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission, apparently first raised the issue. Silcock suggested withdrawing all public lands in Alaska. Swem, Personal Notes, December 22, 1971.

23. Interview of Albert Henson and Theodor R. Swem, June 7, 1983. This idea would be examined in 1978 and some used it as an argument against establishing national monuments after the five-year d-2 time limit expired.

24. Rogers C.B. Morton to Carl Albert, June 23, 1972; Nathaniel P. Reed to Secretary, March 2, 1972, A. Durand Jones Personal Files; Swem, Personal Notes.

25. In both cases, Congress had failed to consider regional, or ecosystem problems in establishing the park boundaries. Everglades had been established without regard to water supply, something that nearly proved disastrous for the park. At Redwoods logging outside the park borders had a major impact on the park. The cost of correcting that problem has proven to be enormous. The final figure that includes acquisition of property and rehabilitation of parklands could approach $1,000,000,000. Everhart, National Park Service, pp. 252-54; Interview of Douglas Warnock by Frank Williss, August 6, 1984.

26. John Saylor and Morris Udall to Rogers C.B. Morton, January 11, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; Alaska Senator Ted Stevens, who also had been a member of the conference committee on ANCSA, strongly disagreed. Congressional Record, Senate, March 1, 1972.

27. Nathaniel P. Reed to Secretary, March 2, 1972, Box 6, Cook Inlet Lawsuit files, ANILCA Papers, USDI and Swem Correspondence, Dec. 1971-April 1972, HFC. The increase between February and March came from recommendations made by conservationists regarding the Noatak and Forty Mile. Secretary Reed included no land for the National Forest System, but indicated that if it were necessary, 1,000,000 acres should be taken from the acreage alloted the Wild and Scenic Rivers System.

28. U.S. Department of the Interior, "Areas Suggested for Withdrawals . . . ," March 2, 1972, Swem Correspondence, December 1971-June 1972, HFC. Overlaps, or land identified by both agencies, were included in the above d-2 figures and amounted to 3,891,000 acres. overlaps, within the larger 17(d)(1) withdrawals totaled 18,782,000 acres. The total 17(d)(1) withdrawal recommended was, as a result, 146,562,000 acres.

29. Morton to Carl Albert, June 23, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, Box 2, Cook Inlet Lawsuit files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Federal Register, XXXVII, March 16, 1972, p. 5579. Actually, the total d-1 withdrawal amounted to 127,000,000 acres. Eighty million acres overlaid the d-2 withdrawal, giving an added measure of protection to the d-2 lands. The 47,100,000 acres described here were outside the d-2 areas. (See Illustration 7.)

30. USDI News Release, March 15, 1972, ANCSA, Box 2, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Rogers C.B. Morton to Carl Albert, June 23, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, December 18, 1971-June 17, 1972, Box 2, Cook Inlet Lawsuit Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Federal Register, XXXVII, March 24, 1972, p. 6090.

31. Quoted in Swem, Personal Notes, March 9, 1972; Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983.

32. Swem, Personal Notes, January 18 - March 18, 1972. Swem said that the Service received between seventy-five and eighty percent of what it wanted.

33. National Park Service Study Areas in Alaska Withdrawn under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, March 29, 1972, NPS Interest Areas, Stenmark Files, HFC; National Park Service Interest Areas Withdrawn under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (draft), March 14, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, Box 36, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "35 Million Acres Get Park Study," March 16, 1972, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; USDI, BLM, "Alaska," March 1972 map showing March 1972 Withdrawals, ARO (Illustration 7).

Because the March withdrawals were completed so hurriedly—changes in acreages were still being made on the day before the withdrawals—the figures shown here were at best approximations. As time went on the figures were reviewed and revised. By mid-July the NPS total was 44,966,882 acres. Most of the increase came from 9,003,000 acres that was the Noatak. USDI, NPS, Recommendations Regarding Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 17(d)(2) Withdrawals (July 1972, Revised August 1972), passim. No effort was made to eliminate the some 12,000,000 acres of overlap with the BSF&W interest areas.

34. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, D-2 Lands Set Aside Under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1970 [sic], Hearings, 93rd Cong., 1st sess., December 1973, p. 5; T. R. Swem, Presentation for the House Appropriations Subcommittee, March 26, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers. A tape of this presentation, made on March 15, 1973, is in Mr. Swem's possession.

35. Anchorage Daily Times, March 16, 1972, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Office of Congressman Nick Begich, News Release, March 15, 1972; State of Alaska, News Release, March 15, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; Anchorage Daily News, March 19, 1972, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL. Senator Stevens' position, the News reported, exposed him to critcism within his own party, as well as elsewhere.

36. Brief Chronology of Events Related to State Selections, Box 4, Alaska Coalition Papers, Conservation Library, DPL; State of Alaska, Department of Natural Resources, "State Land Selection Program, Its History and Guidelines," March 15, 1979, Box 7, Albert Henson Papers, Ibid.; Anchorage Daily Times, March 15, 1972, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, Ibid.; Map showing state selections in Anchorage Daily Times, January 23, 1972, Belous Clipping Files, Ibid. Among the areas of conflict were some 2,700,000 acres in the Central Brooks Range, 3,000,000 acres along the Copper River, and 1,200,000 acres in the Mount McKinley area.

37. State of Alaska vs. Rogers C.B. Morton, et al., A-4872, U.S. District Court of Alaska, April 10, 1972.

38. Swem, Personal Notes, January 10, 1972; Ernest J. Borgman to John Rutter, February 18, 1972, Stenmark Files, HFC; "Possibilities for Alaska Study," January 13, 1972, ANCSA Implementation 1971-April 1972, Swem Papers; National Park Service, Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, Financial Plan— Operations Program, March 21, 1972 (Revised April 5, 1972), ANCSA Implementation, Box 36, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. By April the Service estimated that studies in FY '72 would cost $456,800. An additional $1,756,000 was projected for FY '73 and $849,000 for FY '74.

39. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Hartzog to Frank Bracken, undated letter [April 20-21, 1972] Box 36, WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Swem, Personal Notes, February 2, 1972.

40. Alaska Study, Roles and Functions, April 26 and May 12, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers. The Alaska office would now be headed by a state director. The Service Center did not become involved at this stage, however.

41. Interview of Albert G. Henson by Frank Williss, June 6, 1983; Interview of John Rutter, May 16, 1984.

42. A coordinating committee composed of state director, ATF project leader and assistant project leader, and Denver Service Center liaison representative would, it was hoped, overcome this problem. Alaska Study, Roles and Functions, April 26, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers; Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983.

43. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee on Public Lands, D-2 Lands Set Aside, Hearings, p. 4; Bureau of Outdoor Recreation in Alaska, December 14, 1973, HCRS Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; R.L. Means to T. Swem, undated draft [after May 23, 1973], ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem >Papers; Interview of William Reffalt by Frank Williss, December 9, 1983.

44. Morton to Assistant Secretaries, et al., April 21, 1972, HCRS Records, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Burton Silcock to Secretary of the Interior, April 24, 1972, 1600-Planning, Programming, Budgeting, Records of the Bureau of Land Management, ANILCA Papers, USDI. In this memo, Silcock recommended, among other things, that the BLM coordinate the Alaskan studies of all Interior Department agencies.

45. "ATF Accomplishments," draft, January 9, 1973, Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Raymond Freeman to Director, PNW, May 12, 1972, Box 1, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.; Interview of Albert G. Henson, June 6, 1983; George B. Hartzog, Jr. to Regional Directors, April 25, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers. The Washington Office paid the salaries of those permanently transferred to Alaska, as well as travel and per diem costs of all Task Force members. Salaries of those detailed, however, were borne by the originating office.

46. Interview of Albert G. Henson, June 6, 1983; Alaska Task Force Staff, 1972, Box 2, Alaska, HFC; Study Area Assignments, May 22, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers. For example, one team studied St. Elias-Chugach, Tanana Hills and Yukon River-Eagle to Circle, while another studied Gates of the Arctic, Chukchi and the Noatak. Appendix 1 is a list of the staff of the Alaska Task Force.

47. Study Area Assignments, May 22, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 983; Interview of Zorro Bradley by Frank Williss, November 7, 1983. Additionally, certain specialists—sociologist, engineer, mining, land, and photographer, for example—were detailed to the Task Force.

48. National Park Service Study Categories—Alaska, May 26, 1972, A-74-NPS, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Henson to Team Captains, June 16, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers; Henson to Swem, June 16, 1972, Ibid.

49. Ibid.; "Alaska Task Force," May 10, 1975, AAO Objectives, Denali Keyman Files, Box 28, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. The Forest Service on the other hand, intended, at least, to make recommendations by submitting preliminary master plans indicating how the areas would be managed.

50. Robert Eastman to Deputy Assistant Secretary Lyons, July 12, 1972, D-4225-Alaska, HCRS Records, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Al Henson to Team Captains, May 22, 1972, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Al Henson to Director, PNW, June 20, 1973, A-94-APG, Ibid.; Swem, Personal Notes, May 18, 1972. For a brief period, the department considered a July 1 deadline, but this was extended.

51 . Al Henson to Team members, May 23, 1972, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of Al Henson, °ree;June 6, 1983.

52. Alaska Task Force Briefing, June 5, 6, 7, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers.

53. Al Henson to Team Members, May 22, 1983, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC Seattle; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983; John Kauffmann to Project Leader, [June 1972], ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of Bailey Breedlove, November 10, 1983; Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983. One reason for this approach was logistical—there were neither enough planes available for all, nor office space to accommodate everyone at one time.

54. USDI, NPS, Recommendations Regarding 17(d)(2), passim. The figures included areas that overlapped several recommended by the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife. The BSF&W and BOR published similar reports: USDI, BOR, Alaska Task Force, "Summary of Alaska Rivers Recommended for Detailed Consideration for the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System," July 1972, A-94, Wild and Scenic Rivers, Box 5, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle, and USDI, BSF&W, Alaska Area Office, "Recommendations Regarding Section 17(d)(2) withdrawals, Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," Edition 1, July 1972, James Pepper Files, Headquarters, Gates of the Arctic National Park/Preserve, Fairbanks, Alaska. The Forest Service also published recommendations, although it differed in form from those of the Interior agencies. The report is discussed on p. 119.

55. USDI, NPS, Recommendations Regarding 17(d)(2); Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983. The recommendation that Mt. Veniaminof be deleted was based primarily on limited visitor use potential; Chukchi and Nogabahara Sand Dunes because they appeared to have no special park values meriting protection. The Task Force did recommend that 205,800 acres of the Mt. Veniaminof withdrawal be retained in federal ownership as an area that possessed scenic, recreation, or scientific values. It was understood, moreover, that the BSF&W would recommend protection of Chukchi because of the wildlife values of the area.

56. USDI, NPS, Recommendations Regarding 17(d)(2), pp. 116-20; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983. Possible Native selection lands in the area amounted to 865,720 acres. The Task Force recommended cooperative studies to determine ''mutually acceptable management and development procedures." Generally, however, it was believed that Kenai Fjord would be a viable park only if lands were not selected by Natives. This proved to be the case, and the three separate units were linked together.

57. USDI, NPS, Recommendations Regarding 17(d)(2), p. 3.

58. Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983. The Service did rescue the upper Ambler, but lost the Kogoluktuk Valley, which is certainly among the most beautiful of the Brooks Range.

59. Ibid., passim; Francis S.L. Williamson, "An Evaluation of the NPS Task Force Recommendations for withdrawal of lands in Alaska, with Special Reference to Biological Considerations," draft, 7/19/72, ANCSA Implementation April-December 1972, Swem Papers; "Alaska Studies," January 22, 1975, Swem Correspondence, 1/75-12/76, HFC. Williamson's paper, which was completed under a $1,000 contract with the Park Service, was the first effort to put the Service's Alaska proposals in a general context.

60. USDI, NPS, Recommendations Regarding 17(d)(2), pp. 24-25, 68; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983.

61. Edgar Wayburn to Rogers C.B. Morton, August 4, 1972, Records of the Office of Regional Law Enforcement Specialist, ARO; "Secretarial Meeting on Alaska Land Withdrawals," August 11, 1972, Xerox copy in Jones Files, Port Angeles, Washington. Among the areas recommended were 13,500,000 acres in the Wrangell Mountains, 25,300,000 in the Central Brooks Range-Noatak, and 9,700,000 acres in the Iliamna-Lake Clark-Katmai area.

62. Swem, Personal Notes, August 8, 1972; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983; Anchorage Times, July 28, 1972, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; USDA, Forest Service, Alaska Planning Team, New National Forests in Alaska (July 1972); USDA, F.S., AFT, Forest Service Recommendation for Final Section 17(d)(2) Withdrawals (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1972). Among the proposed national forests were areas in Wrangell Mountains, Fortymile, Lake Clark, Yukon, and Koyukuk.

63. 'Study of Areas as of August 16, 1972," ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers. Overlapping d-2 areas were Kenai Fjords (95,400 acres), Wrangell-Saint Elias (956,100), Chukchi-Imuruk (701,500), Tanana Hills-Yukon River (1,139,900), and Noatak (8,614,040). In addition, 1,010,400 acres of overlapping d-1 land at Chukchi-Imuruk and Wrangell-St. Elias existed.

64. Alaska Native Management Report, vol. 1 (September 12, 1973), p. 1, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL.

65. USDI News Release, July 14, 1972; U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Land Planning and Policy in Alaska: Recommendations Concerning National Interest Lands, by the Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission of Alaska, 93rd Cong., 2nd Sess., June 1973, p. 3.

66. Ernest J. Borgman to Director, PNW, April 17, 1972, L7019-Northern Planning Team Meetings, ARO Central Files, Inactive; Meetings held, BLM, 1972, Ibid; Northern Alaska Planning Project Monthly Report, April 1972, Ibid; The Alaska Native Management Report, vol. 1, (September, 12, 1972], pp. 4-5; Interview with Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983; Jack O. Horton to Directors, BLM, BSF&W, NPS, USGS, BOR, April 9, 1971, HCRS Records, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Coordinated by the BLM, the team had been formed to develop a master land use plan for northern Alaska. Richard Stenmark, who subsequently transferred to the commission's staff, was the NPS's representative.

67. Al Henson to Theodore R. Swem, August 22, 1972, ATF Readers File, Box 32, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Swem, Personal Notes, August 12, 1972; Jack Horton and Charles Herbert to Rogers C.B. Morton, August 12, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers.

68. Hunter was a federal representative, Herbert had been appointed by Governor Egan.

69. Henson to Swem, August 22, 1972, ATF Readers File, August 1972, Box 32, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

70. Jack Horton and Charles F. Herbert to Rogers C.B. Morton, August 16, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers; Land Planning and Policy in Alaska, p. 3; Anchorage Daily Times, August 12, 18, and 19, 1972, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Anchorage Daily News, August 13, 1972, Ibid. Among specific changes recommended were transfer from d-2 to d-1 status of lands in Aniakchak, Chukchi-Imuruk, Charley River, Lake Clark, Iliamna, Gates of the Arctic, and Mount McKinley.

71. Memorandum of Understanding Between the State of Alaska and the United States, September 2, 1972, A-94, Alaska, State of, Selections, Box 2, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Alaska Native Management Report, vol. 1, September 12, 1972; USDI News Release, September 5, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-Dec. 1972, Swem Papers; Anchorage Daily News, September 6 and 8 and Anchorage Daily Times, September 5, 1972, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; USDI, Alaska Planning Group, Master Plan, Aniakchak National Monument (Washington, D.C.: NPS, 1973), p. 27; John F. Luzader, "Litigation," (1983), typescript in author's possession. The latter is a paper consolidating some 1400 pages of interrogatories, briefs, complaints, and news reports on d-2 litigation.

72. USDI News Release, September 13, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, Cook Inlet Lawsuit Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Rogers C.B. Morton to Carl Albert, December 15, 1972, Ibid; USDI, BLM, "Alaska," September 1972, ARO. Illustration 8 is based on this map. No effort was made at this point to eliminate overlaps. Boundaries shown, as a result, are approximate.

73. "National Park Service, Acreage Figures of Study Areas (d-2 withdrawals), October 2, 1972 (Rev. ATF, 10/31/72)," History of ATF, Papers of Al Henson, Mancos, Colo.; "Memorandum of Understanding Between the State of Alaska and the United States," September 2, 1972; John Reynolds to Dick Stenmark, September 21, 1971 and Reynolds to Jerry Patten, August 31, 1972, ATF Reader Files, September 1972, Box 32, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; D-2 Land Set Aside, Hearings, 1973, p. 4.

Portions of the proposed Mt. McKinley addition had been deleted in departmental review. The Chelatna Lake/Sunflower Basin area in that proposal, parts of the Alatna and John Rivers at Gates of the Arctic, most of the deletion at Lake Clark, and areas in the Tanana Hills-Yukon River were deleted as a result of the September 2 agreement. Some 400,000 acres of the last area had been eliminated, moreover, as a result of departmental negotiations with Doyon Native Regional Corporation.

74. John Reynolds to Jerry Patten, August 31, 1972 and Paul Fritz to Al Henson, August 29, 1972, ATF Readers File August 1972, Box 32, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. On the other hand, Bailey Breedlove wrote that we "won the first round of the September withdrawals so conclusively in fact, that it is now called in Alaska 'The Battle of the Overlays' [a reference to the maps used]." Unified Support for NPS Alaska Proposals, by Bailey O. Breedlove, November 10, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers.

75. NPS, Acreage Figures of Study Areas (D-2 withdrawals), October 2, 1972 (Rev. 10/31/72), Henson Papers, Mancos; USDI, BLM, "Alaska," September 1972. Illustration 8 shows the September withdrawals.

As early as July 1972, NPS planners studying Noatak identified Cape Krusenstern, an area with outstanding archeological values, as having "other resource values." The 7,874,700-acre Noatak withdrawal listed above included Cape Krusenstern. By January 1973, however, the two had been separated, although at that time the two acreages were still combined. USDI, NPS, Recommendations Regarding 17(d)(2), pp. 7-8.

76. Nathaniel P. Reed to Directors, NPS and BSF&W, September 25, 1973, Breedlove Papers, HFC; Al Henson to Theodor Swem, September 15, 1972, Ibid.; Henson to Swem, March 1, 1973, W-38, Legislation, Box 20, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. Legislative support data includes a broad range of material to assist Congress in its deliberations. It includes cost data, proposed staffing, proposed development, maps, land ownership data, minerals data, etc.

77. Interview of James M. Lambe by Frank Williss, December 8, 1983; See for example, "A Bill to Establish Arctic Valleys [Noatak] National Ecological Reserve in the state of Alaska, and for other purposes," [1973], Arctic Valleys file, ARO central files - inactive, ARO. Lambe prepared a bill for each individual area. The reason the Service staff prepared individual drafts for the areas was that they were not certain, at this date, of what form the Secretary's proposals would take, and wanted to be prepared for every contingency.

78. Al Henson to John Rutter, June 20, 1973, A-94, APG, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

79. Interview of John Rutter, May 16, 1984; Interview of Stanley T. Albright, June 29, 1984; Swem, Personal Notes, June 20, 1972 and January 5, 1973; Al Henson to Swem, September 15, 1972, Breedlove Papers, HFC; Zorro Bradley to Al Hensen, January 9, 1973, "Natives," Box 1, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Bill Everhart to Swem, January 8, 1973, Ibid.; Nome Nugget, June 29, 1973, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL. By January 5, 1973, Zorro Bradley and Harold Gronroos, whom Swem had hired to work with the Alaska Task Force in 1972, were working on a Native assistance program. The first proposal was for a program of preserving the Native cultural heritage.

80. Acreages with indefinite status on remaining NPS proposals, September 14, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers; "Dual withdrawals," draft, February 13, 1978, Doc. No. 003120, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Swem to Lynn Greenwalt and Robert Eastman, October 15, 1973, Box 33, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.; Ira J. Hutchinson to Assistant Secretary, FWP, November 20, 1978, d-2 Positions and Options, ARO Central Files—Inactive, ARO; Al Henson to T. Swem, September 15, 1972, Breedlove Papers, HFC.

81. Loren W. Croxton and Al Henson to Assistant Secretary Fish, Wildlife and Parks (Nathaniel P. Reed), January 10, 1973, BSF&W Overlaps, Henson Papers, Mancos; "Alaska Native Claim Settlement Act - List of Study Areas Showing where Overlaps Exist," January 19, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1973; Interview of Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983. Prior to this time, both agencies agreed that overlapping claims would actually strengthen the case for any proposal.

82. Theodor R. Swem to Doug Wheeler and Jim Ruch, April 12, 1973, HCRS Records, ANILCA Papers USDI; USDI, BLM, Alaska State Office, A Proposal, Wrangell Mountains National Conservation Area (Anchorage: Bureau of Land Management, 1973); Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?" p. 93. The BLM'S "fifth system" proposal for Wrangells, for example, was similar to multiple-use proposals it had made for the area prior to ANCSA.

83. T. Swem to Curtis E. Bohlen, III, November 5, 1973, Box 36, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Deputy Assistant Secretary Bohlen had primary responsibility for Alaska affairs in Assistant Secretary Reed's office. Until August 1977 he played a major role in determining the direction of the Interior Department's Alaska effort. At that time he joined the staff of the House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee where he continued to work on the Alaska national interest lands issue.

84. Loren W. Croxton and Al Henson to Swem, June 10, 1973, BSF&W Overlaps, Henson Papers, Mancos.

85. Swem, Personal Notes, January 6, 24, and 30, 1973; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, Ill by Frank Williss, October 10, 1983; Interview of Al Henson and Theodor R. Swem, June 7, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1983; Robert Utley to Bryan Harry, February 26, 1976, A-16, Advisory Council, Box 1, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

86. Nathaniel P. Reed to Directors, NPS, BSF&W, and BOR, February 15, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers; USDI News Release, March 23, 1973, Ibid.; Curtis E. Bohlen to John McGuire, February 25, 1973, HCRS Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Bob Utley to Bryan Harry, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. In 1973 membership was expanded to include representatives of BLM and Forest Service. Appendix 2 is an organization chart of the Alaska Planning Group.

87. Reed to Directors, February 15, 1973; Rogers C.B. Morton to Undersecretary, Assistant Secretaries, et. al., January 9, 1973, A-94, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, FARC, Seattle; "Support Documentation for Statement of Nathaniel P. Reed, November 18, 1975," Box 16, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. A working arm of the departmental Alaska Task Force was the Department Work Group on Alaska. The relationship of that group with the APG was the same.

88. Henson to John Rutter, June 20, 1973, A94-APG, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Involvement in Alaska," December 4, 1973, HCRS Records, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Jules Tileston to Wild and Scenic Rivers Participants, March 9, 1973, A-94, Wild and Scenic Rivers, Box 5, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. The reconnaissance surveys made by the NPS Alaska Task Force and those of other agencies are a story in themselves. For a fascinating account of one on the Salmon River in the Brooks Range, see McPhee, Coming into the Country, pp. 5-97.

89. Dennis, Moorhead, Streveler, and Weisbrod to Al Henson, draft memo, November 10, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers; "Alaska Studies," January 22, 1975, Swem Correspondence, 1/75-12/76, HFC; Al Henson to Team Captains, June 22, 1972, L-58, Correspondence to Team Captains, Box 17, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

90. "Alaska Studies," January 22, 1975; Al Henson to Ted Swem, January 18, 1973, Bailey O. Breedlove Papers, HFC; "Noatak River Drainage Project," The Raven the Quarterly Newsletter of the Center for Northern Studies, II (July 1973). The cost of these studies were, respectively, $24,000, $131,000 and $123,000.

91. Henson to Swem, January 18, 1973.

92. John G. Dennis, "National Park Service Research in Alaska—1972-76," Arctic Bulletin (1977) pp. 275-84; NPS, "Natural, Historical, and Cultural Resource Studies in Alaska," January 1978, Xerox copy in library, Rocky Mountain Regional Office; Alaska Implementation Planning Team, "Fish and Wildlife and Parks Current and Interim Activities for Alaska," 11/20/78, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Answers to Sen. Stevens," draft, 2/13/78, Ibid.

Other agencies and groups, as well, sponsored research on the d-2 lands during this period. The JFSLUPC, for example, prepared a series of studies, including a multi-volume Alaskan Resources Inventory (1974) and Alaska Regional Profiles (1974). "Land Use Planning Commission Publications" and "Publications and Studies, Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska," Breedlove Papers, HFC.

93. USDI, APG, NPS, Gates of the Arctic National Wilderness Park and Nunamiut National Wildlands (Washington, D.C., 1973); NPS Briefing Statement, "Proposed Gates of the Arctic National Wilderness Park," June 22, 1973, ANCSA Implementation January-September 1973, Swem Papers; NPS Briefing Statement, "Proposed Noatak National Ecological Reserve," June 22, 1973, Ibid.; Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983.

94. USDI, APG, NPS, Yukon-Charle National Rivers A Master Plan (Washington, D.C.: APG, 1973 , p. 40; USDI, APG, NPS, A Master Plan, Aniakchak Caldera National Monument, (Washington, D.C.: 1973), p. 24. See also Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?" pp. 98-99.

95. Al Henson to Ted Swem, January 18, 1973, A-94-NPS, Box 5, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Henson to Director, NPS, January 19, 1973, Denali Keyman Files, Box 33, Ibid.; Interview of Al Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983.

96. Interview of Al Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983; Bruce >Blanchard to Assistant Secretary—Program Development and Budget, April 13, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers.

97. Interview of Bill Reffalt, December 9, 1983; Ted Swem to Deputy Assistant Secretary Bohlen, May 21, 1973, Swem Correspondence 1/73-6/73, HFC; Bill Reffalt to all K Street Personnel, August 16, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers. Recipients of Draft Staffing Plan, September 26, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Ibid.; Swem, "Outline History," pp. 12-13; USDI, FWS, Programs Related to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1976), p. 5; "Summary of [NPS] Alaska People involved in K Street Operation," [December 1973], NPS Personnel-AK, Henson Papers, Mancos.

98. T. Swem to Asst. Sec., FWP, May 1, 1973 [APG Monthly Report, April 1973], HCRS Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

99. Team Three to Al Henson, December 5, 1973, BSF&W Overlaps, Henson Papers, Mancos; John Kauffmann to Project Leader, April 6, 1973, Arctic Valleys, ARO Central Files - Inactive, ARO.

100. John Reynolds to Al Henson, May 1, 1973, doc. no. 000262, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

101. Interview of Al Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983; Chronology, Implementation Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, National Park Service, October 14, 1975, Box 14, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Briefing Statement, Chukchi-Imuruk National Wildlands, June 22, 1973 ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers.

102. Briefing Statements, NPS, BSF&W, and BOR, June 14-22, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers. The Noatak was included in both the National Park and Refuge Systems, Chukchi-Imuruk National Wildlands would have been jointly managed by the NPS and BSF&W. Approximately 90 percent of the Harding Icefield-Kenai Fjords proposal was on Native deficiency lands. The viability of the proposal depended on cooperative agreements with the Natives, or non-selection of these lands by the Natives.

103. Secretarial Meetings on Alaska Land Withdrawals, August 11, 1972, transcript in Jones Files, Port Angeles, Washington; John Saylor and Morris Udall to Rogers C.B. Morton, January 11, 1972, Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

For an opposite view see: U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior or Insular Affairs, D-2 Lands Set Aside, Hearings, pp. 14-15.

104. Theodore Swem, Personal Notes, July 26, 1973; Interview of Al Henson and Theodore Swem, June 7, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984.

105. JFSLUPC, News Release, February 7, 1973, A-94-JFSLUPC, Box 4, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "People Planning for a Better Alaska Tomorrow," Newsletter of the Federal State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, vol. 1, nos. 3 and 4, March-April, 1973; U.S. Congress, Senate, Land Planning and Policy in Alaska, pp. 7-8. The latter is a reprint of the Commission's preliminary recommendations. In addition the Forest Service held a series of "listening session," on its proposals, much to the displeasure of the Interior Department staff. Interview of Al Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984.

106. USDA, USFS, Alaska Planning Team, New National Forests in Alaska Anchorage, 1973); D-2 Lands Set Aside, Hearings, December 6, 1973, p. 35; Hearings on H.R. 39, et al., 1977, II: 266, 278-79; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 14; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 5, 1983; Interview of Al Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983.

107. USDA, USFS, Alaska Planning Team, New National Forests in Alaska (Anchorage, July 1972); "Secretarial Meeting on Alaska Land Withdrawals," August 11, 1972, transcript in Jones Papers. The 1972 proposals amounted to 44,100,000 acres.

108. "Suggested Balanced System," August 9, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers. The Forest Service recommended, among other things, a 6,200,000-acre Wrangell St. Elias National Park, a reduced Gates of the Arctic (5,200,000), and proposed deleting the Noatak, Lake Clark, and Yukon-Charley proposals.

109. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 14, and "Alaska," p. 11; "Notes of Assistant Secretary Nathaniel P. Reed taken at meeting 8-3-73, with Assistant Secretary of Agriculture Long with Assistant Secretary Lynn of Interior also present. Meeting Relating to implementing of ANCSA," August 5, 1973, ANCSA Implementation—January-September, 1973, Swem Papers; T.R. Swem to Ron Walker, September 25, 1973, September 27, 1973, October 16, 1973, and October 25, 1973, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers.

110. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 14 and "Alaska", p. 11; Interview of Curtis Bohlen III, October 10, 1983. Additionally, Bohlen indicates the need to resolve the question before the proposal could go to OMB for review was another factor.

111 . Swem to Ron Walker, September 25, 1973 (includes a September 21 list of areas), and October 16, 1973, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers; Interview with Al Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983.

112. Among the other agencies that reviewed the proposals were Departments of Defense and Commerce, Federal Power Commission, and OMB. D-2 Lands Set Aside, Hearings December 1973, p. 13; T. Swem to Ron Walker, October 25, 1973 and October 26, 1973, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers.

113. T. Swem to Nathaniel P. Reed, October 24, WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Nathaniel P. Reed to T. Swem, Lynn Greenwalt, and Curt Burklund, November 6, 1973, Box 41, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. On Nov. 6, Reed indicated that no further adjustments would be made, pending an agreement by BSF&W and BLM to protect the bears.

114. Chronology, December 13-14 and 17-18, ANCSA Implementation, October-December 1973, Swem Papers; Wilfred H. Rommel to Rogers C.B. Morton, December 13, 1973, Ibid.; J.M. Lambe (for Stanley Hulett) to Deputy Assistant Secretary, FWP, December 14, 1973; Ibid.; "Proposals authorized by Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," October 31 and December 18, 1973, Ibid.; Russel E. Dickinson to Legislative counsel, 11/14/73, Doc. No. 002108, ANILCA Papers, USDI. The latter was a cover letter, forwarding NPS formal proposals. Despite reservations on OMB's part, the Department successfully defended joint management of the area.

115. Press Conference—Rogers C.B. Morton, Secretary, Department of the Interior, December 18, 1973, transcript in Jones Files. Wilderness, according to the Wilderness Preservation Act of 1964, is an area "where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain." Generally, the act prohibited uses inconsistent with wilderness preservation—commercial enterprises, motor vehicles and motorized equipment, roads, and structures and installations, for example. The term "instant wilderness" refers to establishment of wilderness areas without formal wilderness studies. It was believed, however, that sufficient studies of the area had been completed to warrant wilderness designation.

116. Rogers C.B. Morton to Gerald Ford, December 17, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, October-December 1973, Swem Papers; Press Conference—Rogers C.B. Morton, Secretary, Department of the Interior, December 18, 1973, pp. 4, 7, Transcript in Jones Papers.

117. "A Bill to provide for the addition of certain lands in the state of Alaska to the National Park, National Wildlife Refuge, National Forest, and the Wild and Scenic Rivers systems and for other purposes," (Alaska Conservation Act of 1974), December 17, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, October-December 1973, Swem Papers.

118. Morton to Ford, December 17, 1973. The Proposed Harding Icefield-Kenai Fjords consisted of three small, separate units. The bill provided that if the native corporations did not select the land between, it could be added to the monument. The NPS Alaska Task Force was convinced that it would happen—as it did. Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983. Illustration 9 is a map of the Morton proposal.

119. Although BLM would be the lead agency, the Noatak would be managed as part of the Wildlife Refuge system. A 20-year moratorium on developmental activities would "preserve land use options while allowing time for comprehensive analysis of this intact, arctic ecosystem." USDI, FWS, Noatak National Arctic Range, (Washington, D.C.: FWS, 1974).

120. The policy sections were essentially those developed by the Park Service and ratified by the Alaska Planning Group. Mike Lambe to Ted Swem, July 25, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers; Swem to Deputy Assistant Secretary Bohlen, FWP, November 5, 1973, Swem Correspondence, July-December 1973, HFC.

121. The exception was Yukon-Charley National Rivers. Here the Park Service recommended allowing sport hunting. Briefing statement—Proposed Yukon-Charley National Rivers, National Park Service, June 22, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September, 1973, Swem Papers.

122. Statement of Nathaniel P. Reed, in Hearings on H.R. 39, et. al., 1977, V:20; Interview with Theodor R. Swem and Al Henson, June 6, 1983; Interview with Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Interview of William Reffalt, December 9, 1983; Interview with A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984.

123. D-2 Lands Set Aside, Hearings, December 1973, p. 42.

124. "Senator Ted Stevens Comments at Alaska Proposal Briefing November 8, 1973," June 1, 1974, ANCSA Implementation - 1974, Swem Papers; Norman C. Gorsuch to Curt Berklund, April 25, 1974, Swem Correspondence, February-December 1974, H FC [letter delivering summons and complaint for State of Alaska vs. Rogers C.B. Morton, et. al.]; Anchorage Times, November 30, 1973; "Egan Hits Land Plan," "Gruening says Morton to be 'man who wrecked Alaska,"' "Gravel Plans Land Package Aid," "Land Look Vital says Stevens," in Anchorage Daily Times, December 19, 1973 and March 30, 1974, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL. In addition, a number of Natives issued objections to the bill arguing that it would prevent their receiving full land entitlements. "Native Chiefs Object to Morton's Proposal," Anchorage Daily Times, Dec. 19, 1973.

125. "Is Alaska Worth 8 cents?" Washington Post, May 29, 1973; "What ever happened to the Canada geese? and the Mallards? . . . ," Washington Post, November 30 and December 3, 1973; "Rogers Morton lost his chance at a place in history," NPS, Editorial Briefs, December 31, 1973; Edgar Wayburn to Henry M. Jackson, November 6, 1973, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Harry Crandell to Ted Swem, November, 1973, Conservationists Involvement in Alaska - TWS thru 1975, Swem Papers. The package included 44,000,000 acres for refuges, 12,000,000 for national forests and 1,600,000 for wild and scenic rivers.

126. William C. Everhart said that most NPS employees would have been delighted with half the amount. Interview by Frank Williss, June 29, 1984.

127. Williamson, "Evaluation of NPS Task Force Recommendations"; T.R. Swem to Ron Walker, October 16, 1973, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers; "Alaska Studies," 1/22/75, Swem Correspondence, HFC; Swem, "Outline History," p. 11; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; Interview of Al Henson and Theodor Swem, June 7, 1983.

"The decision on the Noatak, Swem wrote NPS Director Walker, "is an ironic one because the National Park Service has been the agency mainly involved in keeping that proposal alive and, also, has done most of the study work and research within the basin."

128. Swem, "Outline History," p. 11; Interview with Al Henson and Swem, June 7, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1954.

The bill did provide for a much watered-down regional planning at Mt. McKinley. One reason regional planning was not included was a proposal already before Congress for national land use planning. That bill did not pass, as was expected.

129. Franklin K. Lane to Stephen T. Mather, May 13, 1918, quoted in Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the NPS, p. 25. Precedents existed, however, for allowing hunting in parks. At Grand Tetons, for example, an annual hunt to control the elk population occurred. Cahn, "Alaska A Matter of 80,000,000 acres," Audubon 76 (July 1974), p. 12; Robert T. Dennis to John Kauffmann, December 12, 1972, L-3035 Hunting Subsistence, Box 16, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Roger Ernest to Mr. Goldsworth, September 2, 1960, vol. 1, May 1, 1953-December 31, 1960, Records of the Office of Regional Director, Region 4, RG 79, FARC, San Bruno.

130. Testimony of Nathaniel P. Reed in Hearings on H.R. 39, et al., 1977, V:20; Jack Hession to Claudia Martin, Bob Weedon, Jim Kowalsky, November 15, 1974, "To do eventually" file, Henson Papers, Mancos.

131. See, for example, Roger J. Contor to Director, January 3, 1977, Box 17, WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; John T. Nicol to Theodor Swem, July 17, 1974, Ibid.; Review of Wrangell-St. Elias Environmental Impact Statement by Jack (John T.) Nicol, Director General, Parks Canada, July 1, 1974, Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of Al Henson and Theodor Swem (June 7, 1983), John Cook (January 26, 1984), and Stanley T. Albright (June 29, 1984). At the same time many NPS employees of Alaska, and this included Alaska Task Force members, had concluded that some accommodation to sport hunting advocates would have to be made. The next year, for example, John Kauffmann, after participating in a guided "fair chase" hunt of DalI sheep in the Brooks Range, wrote that the experiences "confirmed by personal experience our conviction that this form of recreation is a valid wilderness experience appropriate to certain of the larger park proposals for Alaska." John Kauffmann to Acting Project leader, ATFO, August 15, 1974, L3- 35-Hunting, Box 18, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. See also, Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983; Interview of Richard Stenmark, July 26, 1983. Interview of James Pepper by Frank Williss, November 8, 1983; Interview of Celia Hunter, November 7, 1983; "A Proposal," by Richard J. Stenmark, February 14, 1973, Stenmark Files, HFC; Conservation Foundation, National Parks for the Future, An appraisal of the National parks as they began their second century in a changing America (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, 1972), pp. 19-20.

132. Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III and Theodor R. Swem, January 24, 1984; John Kauffmann to Roger Contor, April 7, 1977, Correspondence, 1977, GAAR Keyman Files, Box 35, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. In 1978, when the department studied administrative alternatives in the face of the expiration of the d-2 provision, it found that the 1974-75 EIS's, which included discussions of the areas of ecological concern, adequately covered the composite boundaries of all proposed legislation as of that date. Only a supplement, therefore, would be necessary.

133. [ ______] to T. Swem, Follow-up slip, December 3, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, Swem papers. A considerable amount of that time was uncompensated.

134. S. 2198; Congressional Record, Senate, January 30, 1974, p. 747 and passim. Congressman Hosmer introduced a similar bill on February 4.

135. 5. 2198; Congressional Record, Senate, January 30, 1974. The bill, which was a companion to that introduced by Morris Udall on March 18 (H.R. 13564), called for 43,200,000 acres in new parklands, 59,700,000 in refuges, 1,594,000 in wild and scenic rivers, and 1,600,000 in national forest.

136. S. 3599, Henry Jackson; H.R. 15856, Dingall, et al., July 11, 1974. S. 3599 had been introduced at the behest of the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation.

137. For example, "Alaska Professional Hunters Association, "Proposals for Disposition of 80 million acres under Terms of the Alaska Native Land Claims Settlement Act," [May 1974], L-3035, Wildlife Management, Box 16, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Anchorage Daily Times, December 19, 1973, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL.

1. Hearings on S. 1687, et. al., 1975, p. 240; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 15. Secretary Morton's proposals were introduced in 1975 as S. 1687 (Jackson and Fannin, May 8, 1975), H.R. 7990 (Haley, et. al., June 13, 1975), and H.R. 6089 (Sullivan, April 1975). H.R. 9585 (Taylor, [November] 1975) did not include provisions for refuges and forests, but was similar in all respects regarding the proposed national parks. Richard Curry to Legislative Counsel, November 25, 1975, fiche 005, H.R. 2063, 94th Cong., 1st sess., Office of Legislation, WASO.

2. S.1688 (Jackson and Fannin, May, 1975), HR. 2063 (UdaIl, January 23, 1975), and H.R. 9346 (Udall, [1975]); S.2676 (Stevens, November 14, 1975); H.R. 6848 (Young, May 8, 1975); JFSLUPC, News Release, October 25, 1975, Box 34, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; David S. Jackman to Jay S. Hammond, April 15, 1975 [Recommendations on Developing a State "National Interest" Lands Bill], State d-2 Bill, Box 40, Ibid.; State of Alaska, "A Preliminary Proposal Pertaining to National Interest ("D-2") Lands in Alaska under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement," [1975], Ibid.; Kirk Marckwald to Mike Lambe, May 21, 1975, fiche 004, H.R. 2063, 94th Cong., 1st sess, Office of Legislation, WASO; "Comparison of Four Alaska Land Bills, July 7, 1975, doc. 002671, ANILCA papers, USDI; Steve Silver to the Commission, September 3, 1975, Land Use Planning Commission, Swem Papers; University of Alaska, Cooperative Extension Service, Alaska's National Interest Lands (d-2) A Summary of Current Proposals [Fairbanks: U. of Alaska, 1975]; T. Stell Newman to Al Henson, December 3, 1975, A-22, NANA, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

3. Figures here are from a compilation prepared by the NPS. They differ, slightly, from those given elsewhere. Kirk Marckwald to Mike Lambe, May 21, 1975, fiche 004, H.R. 2063, 94th Cong., 1st sess., Office of Legislation, WASO.

4. Ibid. National Park System units were Gates of the Arctic N.P. (3,240,000 acres), Kobuk Valley N.M. (150,000 acres), Cape Krusenstern (440,000 acres), Mount Mckinley N.P. additions (1,400,000 acres), and Wrangell-Saint Elias N.P. (8,640,000 acres).

5. Statement of Don Young in Hearings on S. 1687, et. al., 1975, p. 236; "State Introduces D(2) Proposal," [November] 1975, State's position, Swem Papers. Governor Hammond defended the state's version—called the "Alaska Resource Lands."

The Stevens-Young proposal would have created an "independent establishment" in the executive branch to administer the areas. The "Alaska Scenic Reserve Service" would be administered by co-directors, one appointed by the president with advice and consent of the senate, the other by the governor of Alaska.

6. "Alaska Trip—Parks and Recreation Subcommittee Itinerary August 1975," Breedlove Papers, HFC; Swem, "Outline History," p. 12, Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 15. Additionally Congressmen Allen Steelman and William Alexander were along part of the time.

7. "Background," May 10, 1975, Material for meeting with Director, Henson Papers, Mancos, Colo. Chapter five is a description of the Service's activities in Alaska from 1974 to 1980. What follows here is only a brief summary to illustrate actions taken in preparation for the legislative struggle over Alaska's national interest lands.

8. Al [Henson] to Ted [Swem], November 9, 1973, Breedlove Papers, HFC; Theodor Swem to APG, June 12, 1974, L-58, Environmental matters, Box 17, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "National Park Service, Objectives and Goals for Alaska," October 18, 1974, D-18, Planning, Programs, and Master Plans, Box 6, Ibid; "Alaska Planning Group, Goals," October 31, 1974, ANCSA, 1974, Swem Papers; Organization chart—Alaska Task Force, [1974] Box 2, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "Procedures Leading to the Morton Proposals of 1973 and the September 15, 1977 Andrus Report on H.R. 39," undated MS, Box 38, NPS, WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Ted Swem to Ron Walker, October 22, 1974, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers.

9. "Background," May 10, 1975, Material for meeting with Director, Henson Papers, Mancos; Al [Henson] to Ted [Swem] November 9, 1973, Breedlove Papers, HFC; "National Park Service Objectives and Goals for Alaska," October 18, 1974, D-18, Planning, Programs, and Master Plans, Box 6, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983.

10. Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Al Henson to Ted Swem, March 15, 1973; NPS Recommendations Regarding ANCSA, Box 5, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; National Park Service's Objectives and Goals for Alaska, October 15, 1974, D-18, Planning, Programs, and Master Plans, Box 6, Ibid.; Russ Dickinson to John Rutter, April 19, 1974, Alaska Organization, NPS, Swem Papers; Ted Stevens to William J. Whalen, June 22, 1977, Senator Stevens—Costs for Lectures on ANCSA, Breedlove Papers, HFC; Cecil D. Andrus to Don Young, December 1977, Anti-lobbying, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; G. Bryan Harry to Roger Contor, July 1, 1977, Ibid.

Federal Agencies may conduct educational campaigns. They may not, by law, lobby. It is believed that the Park Service, and Interior Department, generally observed the spirit as well as the intent of the law in this case. In 1978, however; the Senate appropriations committee deleted a House increase of $356,000 for Department of Interior public affairs, limiting that activity to $454,000. The committee indicated that it had been done to emphasize the distinction between attempting to inform and attempting to influence opinion.

11. Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; National Park Service Objectives and Goals for Alaska, October 18, 1974, D-18, Planning, Programs, and Master Plans, Box 6, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Ted Stevens to William J. Whalen, June 22, 1977, Senator Stevens—Costs for Lectures on ANCSA, Breedlove Papers, HFC; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1983; John Kauffmann to Area Director, July 1, 1977, GAAR Keyman Files, Box 33, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; John Kauffmann, "Noatak," The Living Wilderness (Winter 1974-75), pp. 17-33; Eugenia Horstman Connally, ed., Wilderness Parklands of Alaska (Washington, D.C. : National Parks and Conservation Association, 1975).

An important example of the combined efforts of the Service and private sector was "Alaska the Greatland," a collection of NPS color photographs shown in different cities by the Squibb Company in 1975.

12. Swem, "Outline History," p. 11; Ted Swem to Gary Everhardt, January 16, 1976, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III and Theodor R. Swem, January 24, 1984; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1983.

13. Harrison Loesch and Nathanial P. Reed to George Miller, Jr. and Larry M. Oskoloff, December 15; 1972, Doc. no. 002595, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Royston Hughes to Lee Metcalf, February 10, 1975, ANCSA-1975, Swem Papers; Michael C.T. Smith to Guy Martin, December 6, 1975, doc. no. 002768, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Chronology of State Selections Within Cook Inlet Region," Cook Inlet Lawsuit Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; John Luzader, "Cook Inlet Region, et. al. vs. Rogers C. B. Morton," 1984. The latter is a distillation of the case prepared for the author s use by Mr. Luzader.

14. Luzader, "Cook Inlet Region vs. Morton"; "Presentation Before Department of the Interior—Cook Inlet," December 12, 1972, doc. no. 002700, ANILCA Papers, USDI; USDI, APG, NPS, Lake Clark National Park A Master Plan (Washington, D.C. : NPS, 1973), p. 73. Cook Inlet claimed on December 17, 1972 that Secretary Morton had withdrawn 3,894,000 acres. This figure, according to Mr. Luzader, more closely correspondents to the amount required for withdrawal, not the amount the Secretary actually withdrew.

15. Luzader, "Cook Inlet Region vs. Morton"; Loesch and Reed to Miller and Oskoloff, December 15, 1972; "Presentation before Department of Interior—Cook Inlet," December 12, 1972.

16. "ANCSA Related Cases—Pending," Regulations—ANCSA, BLM Records, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Douglas Wheeler to Mr. Johnson, December 3, 1973, doc. 002704, Ibid.; Paul Kirton to Members, ANCSA Task Force, March 15, 1973, doc. 002712, Ibid.

Apparently, the Cook Inlet Region filed for summary judgement when the Interior Department rejected a proposal to release areas within Kenai National Moose Range. A suit brought by Bristol Bay Regional Corporation against Cook Inlet Regional Corporation also played a role.

17. Ted Swem to Ron Walker, July 3, 1974, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers; Status - Cook Inlet Law Suit, March 17, 1974, doc. 002707, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Michael C.T. Smith to Guy Martin, December 6, 1975, doc. 002768, Ibid.

18. Luzader, "Cook Inlet vs. Morton;" Michael C.T. Smith to Guy Martin, December 6, 1975, doc. 002768, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Cook Inlet Region, et. al. v. Rogers C.B. Morton, Memorandum of Decision, doc. 002729, Ibid.

19. Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; Michael C. T. Smith to Guy Martin December 6, 1975, doc. 002768, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Roy Huhndorf to Lloyd Meeds, September 29, 1975, doc. 002749, Ibid.; Terms and Conditions for Land Consolidation and Management in the Cook Inlet Area, December 10, 1975, doc. 002772, Ibid.; Federal-state Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, Cook Inlet Report (Anchorage, 1976); U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Legislative History P.L. 94-204, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 1975. House Report No. 94-729; U.S., Congress, Senate, A Bill to Provide Under or by Amendment of the Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act, for the Late Enrollment of Certain Natives, to Establishment of an Escrow Account for the Proceeds of Certain Lands, the Treatment of Certain Payments and Grants, and the Consolidation of Existing Regional Corporations, and for other purposes, 94th Cong., 2nd sess., 1976, S.1469.

20. Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; Memorandum of Agreement Between the Secretary of the Interior and Cook Inlet Region, Inc., September 29, 1975, doc. 002750, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Roy Huhndorf to Roy Taylor, April 1, 1976, doc. 002196; A. Durand Jones to Deputy Director, April 15, 1976, Legislation, Stenmark Files, HFC; Ted Swem to Gary Everhardt, January 16, 1976, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers.

21. Ben Thompson to Regional Directors, September 15, 1958, L-58, Box 001221, RG 79, FARC, San Bruno; untitled MS by Richard Gordon, March 12, 1969, ARO Central Files - Inactive, ARO.

22. Jack Hession to Bob Weedon and Jim Kowalsky (with copy to the Alaska Task Force), November 15, 1974, "To do eventually" file, Henson Papers, Mancos.

23. Ibid.

24. USDI, NPS, Alaska Area Office, "Lake Clark National Park Alternative Study," January 20, 1976, pp. 1,S, Lake Clark misc., Lake Clark Keyman Files, Box 43, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. Mining in the listed areas was guaranteed by the proposed 1976 legislation. New mining entries would not be allowed.

25. Ibid., Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983; G. Bryan Harry to Special Assistant to the Director, January 20, 1976, Lake Clark misc., Lake Clark Keyman Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; John Kauffmann to Area Director, January 31, 1977, doc. 002665, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Al Henson agreed with Harry regarding subsistence.

26. Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III and Theodor R. Swem, January 24, 1984. Byron, it will be recalled, was one of the Congressmen who traveled to Alaska with Congressman John Seiberling the previous summer.

It has not been possible to determine the exact date that WASO accepted the recommendations, nor the date Swem and Bohlen approached Byron. The latter occurred, however, only a short time before Swem retired on the last day of February 1976.

27. Richard C. Curry to Legislative Counsel, March 29, 1976, Legislative Support Data Books, Aniakchak Caldera National Monument, ARO; "A Bill to Establish the Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Aniakchak Caldera National Monument and Preserve and Harding Icefield-Kenai Fjords National Monument and other purposes," draft, March 18, 1976, Ibid.; "Acreage with indefinite status on remaining NPS Proposals," September 14, 1973, ANCSA Implementation, January-September 1973, Swem Papers.

In all areas, land problems had only recently been solved. At Aniakchak, PL 94-204 had resolved the 300,000-acre dual withdrawal (NPS and Koniag Corporation). At Kenai Fjords the Chugach Natives had decided not to select the acreage reserved for that purpose. The land between the three separate units of the proposed monument, as a result, became available. The proposal here was for a 1,000,000-acre monument.

28. Representative William Alexander introduced a similar bill the next year, providing for a 7,500,000-acre Lake Clark National Park. In 1977 Congressman John Seiberling and Senator Abourezk introduced bills providing for the establishment of Admiralty Island National Preserve (H.R. 5605, March 24, 1977 and S.1546 May 17, 1977). The Carter administration first raised the possibility of using the preserve category in Alaska when Secretary of the Interior Cecil D. Andrus and Curtis Bohlen appeared before the House Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands on April 25, 1977. As late as September 1977, long debates regarding the utility of the preserve went on in the administration. Hearings on H.R. 39, et. al., 1977, II: 152; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Interview of Roger Contor by Frank Williss, November 2, 1983; John D. Hough to Secretary [Andrus], July 8, 1977, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Daily Log—Assistant to the Director for Alaska [Roger Contor], December 6, 1976, Office of the Regional Director, ARO; James A. Joseph to APG members, July 26, 1977, doc. no. 000569, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

29. Deputy Assistant Secretary Bohlen took over Swem's job as chairman of the APG. In May James M. Lambe of the Service's Office of Legislation became NPS representative on the APG until a new assistant to the director for Alaska could be named. Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; Interview of William C. Everhart, June 29, 1984; Interview of James M. Lambe, December 8, 1983; Nathaniel P. Reed to Directors, NPS, BOR, FWS, March 3, 1976, ANCSA Implementation 1975-76, Swem Papers; WASO Directorate to Acting Assistant to the Director for Alaska, July 1, 1976, A-58, Proposed Areas, ARO Central Files-Inactive, ARO.

30. See for example, Bob Utley to Bryan Harry, February 26, 1976, A-16, Advisory Council, Box 1, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of John Rutter, May 16, 1984; Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984; Interview of Stanley T. Albright June 29, 1984. This problem is discussed in chapter V.

31. WASO Directorate to Acting Assistant to the Director for Alaska, July 1, 1976, AK-58, Proposed Areas, ARO Central Files-Inactive, ARO; Gary Everhardt to All Employees, November 26, 1976, Ibid.; Interview of Roger J. Contor, November 2, 1983; Activity Report No. 22, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, November 2, 1977 [Alaska Program 1978 Goals], Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

32. FWP Weekly Report, June 20, 1979, Box 14, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of Roger J. Contor, November 2, 1983.

33. Bob Belous to Al Henson, November 18, 1976, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

34. Federal-state Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, Tentative Recommendations for National Interest Lands (D-2) in Alaska (Anchorage: FSLUPC, April 21, 1976) p. 3. The twelve park system units recommended included an Alatna National Preserve (470,000 acres), Chitina National Preserve (1,090,000 acres), and a 30,000-acre addition to Glacier Bay. Noatak, Chukchi-Imuruk, and Harding Icefield-Kenai Fjords were not included.

35. The wilderness study areas were included as part of the 31,300,000 acres of National Land Reserves.

36. Harry B. Crandell to Stewart Brandborg, December 7, 1974, Conservationists Involvement in Alaska-TWS thru 1975, Swem Papers; Rich Gordon to Conservationists, February 23, 1975, Box 1, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; A Report of the Second Alaska Coalition Meeting on the National Interest Lands, McKinley Park Hotel, Mckinley Park Alaska, May 15-16, 1976, Alternative Proposals, Yukon-Charley Keyman Files, Box 46, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Swem Diary, January 15, 1976; Saving Our Alaska Heritage, The Wilderness Society's Action Plan, April 18, 1977, Box 19, Alaska Coalition Papers; Cahn, Wild Alaska, pp. 13-14.

37. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 15; Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?" pp. 128-29; Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1983. President Carter reaffirmed this position in his first message on the environment when he said "No conservative action of the 95th congress could have a more lasting value than this." U.S. Congress, House, Message From the President of the United States Transmitting Proposals for Dealing with a Variety of Environmental Issues, House Doc. 95-160, 95th Cong., 1st sess. May 23, 1977. House Doc. no. 95-160.

38. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 15.

39. Daily Log, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, April 4, 1977; Interview of Cynthia Wilson by Frank Williss, December 6, 1983; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1979; Interview of Theodor R. Swem, June 8, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1983; Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983; Jack Hession, Ted Whitesell and David Finklestein to Alaska Coalition, October 26, 1976 [Resource data supporting conservationists' proposals], Box 12, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

40. Cahn, Wild Alaska, P. 15; Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, The Conservationists' Alaska Coalition Bill, January 1977, Lake Clark—Conservationists' proposals, Park Files, Headquarters, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Anchorage.

41. U.S. Congress, House, A Bill to designate certain lands in the state of Alaska as units of the National Park, National Wildlife Refuge, Wild and Scenic Rivers, and National Wilderness Preservation System, and for other purposes H.R. 39, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 1977; Congressional Record, House, January 4, 1977, p. 261; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 16. The large number of co-sponsors was a result, largely, of the work of the Alaska Coalition. The conservationists hoped to convince Congress of broad support for a strong Alaska lands bill by the large number of co-sponsors. Some believe that this tactic is a mistake that telegraphs the support for a bill.

42. S.1500 (Metcalf, May 12, 1977); S.500 (Jackson and Hansen, January 28, 1977). Also H.R. 2876 (Udall, et. al., February 1, 1977), H.R. 1974 (Udall, January 17, 1977), and H.R. 5505 (Quillan, March 23, 1977); Robert Cahn, "The Race to Save Wild Alaska," Living Wilderness, (July-Sept 1977), p. 16. Senator Metcalf's bill went beyond H.R. 39, to propose establishment of four additional wilderness units, and protection of other areas until studied.

43. Both Katmai and Glacier Bay would be re-designated national parks.

44. Evidence suggests that the preserves outlined in H.R. 39 differed from those already in existence in the "Lower 48"—Big Thicket and Big Cypress. The latter were areas set aside for preservation of the natural values they contained, while allowing for other uses as long as those uses did not affect these values. In H.R. 39, preserves, with the possible exception of Noatak, seem to have been essentially national parks that allowed sport hunting.

45. Included in forest wilderness areas were Nellie Juan (1,000,000) Yakutat Foreland (300,000), West Chichagof-Yakobi (400,000), Admiralty Island (1,000,000), Stikine-Le Conte (300,000), and Misty Fjords (2,400,000).

Wilderness studies had been conducted at existing NPS areas, although these studies did not include all lands within those parks designated for wilderness in H.R. 39. Bryan Harry to Chief, Office of Legislation, March 3, 1977, ANCSA-1977, Swem Papers.

46. Congressional Record, House, January 4, 1977, E261; Morris Udall to Bob Georgine and Executive Council, November 15, 1977, AK-5, Crandell Papers .

47. This is not to suggest that Alaskan conservationists were of one mind. Quite the contrary is true. A number professed shock at the scale of the bill. Dale Bondurant, of the Anchorage Izaak Walton League spoke out forcibly against the protection of hunting for what he called a "special group" [Native subsistence].

48. Tundra Times, April 20, 1977, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL.

49. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 19; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, October 17, 1978, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; "Statement of Policy for Citizens for Management of Alaska Lands," undated MS, A-94, CMAL, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

50. Statement by U.S. Senator Ted Stevens, June 30, 1977, Congressional and committee membership and governors, Box 21, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Tentative 17(d)(2) Lands Proposal presented by: Governor Jay Hammond, Senator Ted Stevens, Congressman Don Young, March 1977, Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Senator Mike Gravel, who called it a "Republican d-2 bill" refused to co-sponsor. According to Senator Stevens, however, Senator Gravel favored the co-management approach embodied in the bill. S.E. Alaskan Empire, June 30, 1977, AK-7, Ibid.

51. U. S. Congress, Senate, A Bill Relating to the Classification of Certain Lands within the state of Alaska and for other Purposes, S.1787, 95th Cong., 1st. sess., 1977; Statement of U.S. Senator Ted Stevens, June 30, 1977, Congressional and Committee membership and Senators, Box 21, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Summary of Tentative d-2 Position, presented by Governor Jay Hammond, et. al, March 26, 1977, AK-5, Crandell Papers; Federal State Land Use Planning Commission, Area Maps of Proposals Affecting National Interest Lands (d-2) in Alaska, January 1978, Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. The core park areas, as well as those of other agencies were to be designated, but not formally dedicated, until the year 2000. The delay would allow for uses not allowed under traditional management.

52. NPS-managed federal cooperative lands would be Katmai (1,590,000), Gates of the Arctic (3,550,000), Mt. McKinley (1,960,000), Wrangell-St. Elias (8, 740,000), Lake Clark (3,490,000) and Charley River (900,000).

53. J. Fred Eubanks to Bryan Harry, February 23, 1977, doc. no., 003340, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Marcus P. Malik to Bryan Harry, Feb. 18, 1977, doc. 003347, Ibid.; Bob Belous to Bryan Harry, Feb. 18, 1977, doc. 003346, Ibid.; Interview of Robert Belous by Frank Williss August 6, 1984; Bryan Harry to Chief, Office of Legislation, March 3, 1977, ANCSA—1977, Swem Papers; Interview of Roger Contor, November 2, 1983.

54. Statement of Cecil B. Andrus, Secretary of the Interior to the House Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands, April 25, 1977, Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Hearings on H. R. 39, et. al., 1977, II:152; ANCSA (d-2) Proposals, 5/20/77, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. The Morton Proposals had been reintroduced as S.499 (Jackson, January, 28, 1977), H.R. 6564 (Murphy, April 22, 1977). Additionally, Representative John Dingall had introduced H.R. 1652, a bill proposing to set aside some 68,000,000 acres in wildlife refuges in Alaska.

55. Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1983; Swem, "Outline History," p. 13; Daily Log—Assistant to the Director for Alaska [Roger Contor], Office of the Regional Director, ARO. By Sept. 1, Crandell indicated Secretary Andrus was "shooting for 95 million acres. "

56. James A. Joseph to Solicitor, et. al., May 4, 1977, doc. no. 000540 ANILCA Papers, USDI; Chris Farrand to Curtis Bohlen and Heather Ross, March 3, 1977, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.; Richard A. Baenen to Cecil D. Andrus, March 21, 1977, doc. no. 000530, Ibid.; Raymond Butler to Cecil D. Andrus, February 25, 1977, doc. no. 000488, Ibid.; USDI, News Release, April 22, 1977, ANCSA Implementation—1977, Swem Papers; Harry Crandell to John Seiberling, May 23, 1977, AK-5, Crandell Papers; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Interview of James M. Lambe, December 8, 1983.

The scope of the activities of the APG was considerably reduced by April. Originally, Andrus indicated that its jurisdiction would go beyond d-2. Nevertheless, one indication of the importance of the decision to control the Interior's d-2 effort at the departmental level, came when James M. Lambe, a long-time NPS official and presently chief of the NPS's WASO Division of Legislation, temporarily left the Service to become Bohlen's assistant. Lambe took the job, recognizing that the most significant activities would take place at the departmental level.

57. "Efforts by Assistant Secretary Herbst and staff on behalf of the National Interest in Alaska Natural Resources, " undated MS [after October 2, 1980], Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Curtis Bohlen to Director, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, March 30, 1977, doc. 000753, Ibid.; Bohlen to Assistant Secretary of Agriculture for Conservation, Research, and Education [with identical letters to Bureau of Mines, Geological Survey, Bureau of Land Management, and Bureau of Indian Affairs], May 20, 1977, doc. no. 000752, Ibid.

58. M. Rupert Cutler to Curtis Bohlen June 8, 1977, doc. 000543, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Daily Log—Assistant to the Director for Alaska [Roger Contor], Office of the Regional Director, ARO. One reason for this approach was to avoid the lengthy formal review process required by OMB. The Department did conduct briefings for OMB.

59. "Management of Federal Lands in Alaska," January 24, 1977, 2650-Alaska Native Selections, BLM Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Summary Alaska Conservation Areas," March 18, 1977, Box 21, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "Criteria for Federal Land Use Determinations in Alaska," March 11, 1977, Ibid. National Park System areas proposed were: Gates of the Arctic (5,400,000 acres), Kobuk Valley (140,000 acres), Cape Krusenstern (200,000 acres), Wrangell-Kluane (10,000,000 acres), Lake Clark (3,500,000 acres), Aniakchak Caldera (400,000), and Marsh Fort-Chamberlain [portion of Arctic National Wildlife Range] (1,100,000 acres).

60. Chris Carlson to the Secretary [Cecil Andrus], March 24, 1977, doc. no. 000535, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; "BLM Plan Draws Ire," Fairbanks Daily News Miner, March 28, 1977; Legislation 1977, Box 21, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "End Run by BLM on D-2," Anchorage Daily News, March 26, 1977, Ibid; "BLM details its d-2 Land Plan," Fairbanks Daily News Miner, March 25, 1977, Ibid. The premature release of the BLM's plan was not accidental.

61. Daily Log—Assistant to the Director for Alaska, December 1-3, 1976, Office of the Regional Director, ARO; Interview of Roger Contor, November 2, 1983; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983. "Keyman" was the title of the NPS planner responsible for a given area. They had been hired during late spring 1975. See pp. 246-48; 256-58.

62. Stell Newman to Roger Contor, April 4, 1977, 0060-Boundaries, Box 25, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; WEB [William E. Brown], Ideal Boundary for YUCL Proposal, February 16, 1977, Resources, Cape Krusenstern (1977), and Gates of the Arctic, (1977), Breedlove Papers, HFC. Similar maps were prepared for all areas.

63. Interview of Al Henson, June 6, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983; Activity Report No. 20, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, September 27, 1977. Roger Contor, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, was traveling in Alaska when the presentations were made to Director Whalen, and had no opportunity to participate in the decision making.

64. William J. Whalen to Assistant Secretary, FWP [Herbst], August 12, 1977, Breedlove Papers, HFC. Two reports were forwarded to Herbst on August 12. One addressed an Alaska d-2 Issue Paper drafted by the Special Assistant to the Secretary for Alaska [Curtis Bohlen]. The second was a report on H.R. 39.

The Service recommended that Mount McKinley National Park be renamed Denali National Park" (as did H . R 39), a Native name for the mountain, and the park name first suggested by Charles Sheldon. Bering Land Bridge had been previously Chukchi-Imuruk. The name change, which was suggested by T. Stell Newman, keyman for the area, was designed to better describe park values in the area. At the same time, it is unlikely that Newman could have missed the fact that the name "Bering Land Bridge" had a public relations appeal that Chukchi-Imuruk would never have.

65. Theodor R. Swem to Curtis Bohlen, November 5, 1973 [Policy issues relative to Alaska proposals], Swem Correspondence, July 1973-December 1973, HFC; Robert Belous, "Subsistence Use of New Parklands in Alaska (An Interim Report)," November 10, 1973, L3505-Subsistence, Box 16, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

>66. See, for example, Theodor R. Swem to Curtis Bohlen, November 5, 1973, Swem Correspondence, July-December 1973, HFC; Robert Belous, "Subsistence Use of New Parklands in Alaska (An Interim Report)," November 10, 1973, L3505-subsistence, Box 16 Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Robert Belous to Planners and Professional Staff, ATO [position working paper on subsistence policy], September 9, 1975, Ibid; T. Stell Newman to Roger Contor, April 13, 1977, Box 1, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

67. Interview of Roger Contor, November 2, 1983; Interview of Bill Reffalt, December 9, 1983.

68. Interview of Roger Contor, November 2, 1983; Interview of Bill Reffalt, December 9, 1983; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III and Theodor R. Swem, January 24, 1984; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; Harvey K. Nelson to Deputy Director, et. al., April 22, 1977, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

In addition, a February 27, 1976 amendment to the National Wildlife Refuge Administration Act, included a provision that ruled out joint administration of wildlife refuge lands. This brought into question the joint management proposals in the Morton recommendations. Interview of Christine Enright by Frank Williss, August 17, 1983.

69. Interview of Roger Contor, November 2, 1983; Interview of Bill Reffalt December 9, 1983; Interview of A. Durand Jones, May 15, 1984; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983; Daily Log-Assistant to the Director for Alaska, August 17, 1977; Bill Reffalt to Harvey, Gene, and Mike, September 22, 1977, Box 39, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Reffalt to Clay Hardy, July 13, 1977, Ibid; [ ] Nadeau to Bill [Reffalt], July 6, 1977, Ibid; Bob Herbst's Blackboard Decisions, August 18, 1977, Jones Files; Richard Myshak to Directors, NPS, BOR, FWS, August 7, 1977; Ibid. It has not been possible to locate the Fish and Wildlife Service's August 1977 recommendations. However, estimates of the total acreage vary between 69,000,000 and 79,000,000 acres.

At one point in the process of reevaluating management systems, moreover, the FWS had considered a boundary of Iliamna that included nearly half of the proposed Lake Clark National Park.

70. Interviews of Contor, Reffalt, Pepper, and Jones; Bob Herbst's Blackboard Decisions, August 18, 1977; Myshak to Directors, NPS FWS, August 19, 1977; Daily Log, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, August 17, 1971. On August 17, the Park Service had agreed to give up the Noatak. This decision was reversed.

71. Robert L. Herbst to Secretary Andrus, et. al., August 23, 1971, doc. no. 000584, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Herbst recommended setting aside 49,619,000 acres for inclusion in the National Wildlife Refuge System, and 2,000,000 acres in the Wild and Scenic Rivers System. No final recommendation was presented for Admiralty Island (813,000 acres), although three options were listed: 1) Management by the NPS as a National Preserve, 2) Wildlife Refuge, 3) Forest Service Wilderness area. The options were listed in priority order, subject to discussions with the Secretary of Agriculture.

72. "Efforts by Assistant Secretary Herbst and staff on behalf of (the National Interest) in Alaska Natural Resources," undated MS [after October 10, 1980], Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Guy Martin to Cynthia Wilson, August 26, 1977, doc. no. 000591, Ibid.; "FWP Rebuttal to 8/2S LW Comments," undated MS, doc. no. 000594, Ibid; USDI, Alaska Policy Group, Decision meeting, Alaska D-2," August 26, 1977, doc. no. 000604, Ibid; Cynthia Wilson to Solicitor, et. al., August 29, 1977, Box 12, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.; Ronald K. Peterson to Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission, Departments of Interior, Transportation, Justice, et. al., September 9, 1977, doc. no. 000685, Ibid.; Commissioner of Natural Resources, State of Alaska to Alaska Planning Group, August 25, 1977 [state comments on Herbst proposal], doc. 000596, Ibid.; "Department of the Interior Recommended Amendments to H.R. 39, Proposed Alaska National Interest Lands Act," September 13, 1977, Box S, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.; USDI, News Release, September 15, 1977, doc. no. 000709, Ibid; Cecil D. Andrus to Undersecretary, et. al., Box 12, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.

73. USDI, News Release, September 15, 1977; Summary Sheet National Park Service Proposals for Alaska, September 15, 1977, doc. no. 000709, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Administration Recommendations for National Wildlife Refuges, Parks, Forests, and Wild and Scenic Rivers, in Response to H.R. 39, September 15, 1977", (Illustration 12), map in Technical Information Center, Denver Service Center.

74. Department of the Interior Recommended Amendments to H.R. 39, proposed "Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act," September 20, 1977, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Analysis of Andrus D-2 Package," undated MS, AK-5, Crandell Papers; Interview of James M. Lambe, December 8, 1983.

75. See Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 20.

76. Governor Hammond called the plan a "centerpiece upon which those seeking a responsible solution to d-2 can focus, " and the JFSLUPC gave its "general backing." On the other hand, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, urged on by the Citizens for the Management of Alaska's Land, sought unsuccessfully to prevent the Department from testifying on H.R. 39 without completing additional environmental impact statements. Anchorage Daily News, October 14, 1977, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections, DPL; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, November 18, 1977, ARO Clipping Files, Ibid.; Activity Report no. 20, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, September 27, 1977, Box 39, ANILCA papers, USDI.

77. Presidential Option Paper, September 10, 1977, doc. no. 000707, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Department of the Interior, Proposed Additions to the National Park System, September 12, 1977, Box 3, d-2 Legislation, NPS WASO Files; Department of the Interior, Proposed Additions to the National Park System, September 13, 1977, Briefing Book-1977, Box 4, Ibid; Interview of Roger Contor, November 2, 1983; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983.

The Interior Department had unsuccessfully negotiated with the Agriculture on this matter, and had proposed the same compromise during meetings with OMB on September 10. The Department of Agriculture refused the proposed compromise. The issue was one of several carried to President Carter, who decided in favor of Secretary Andrus on September 14.

78. Comments by John F. Seiberling, Congressional Record, House, December 15, 1977; Hearings on H.R. 39, V:21, XII:15 and XIII:221-22. See also Cahn, Wild Alaska, pp. 18-19; Lappen, "Whose Promised Land?" pp. 143-44.

79. Hearings on H.R. 39, et. al., 1977, passim; Cahn, "Fight to Save Wild Alaska," p. 19; "Juneau D-2 Testimony Balanced Between Pro and Anti-Wilderness," S.E. Alaska Empire, July 8, 1977, AK-5, Crandell Papers; "Mixed views on d-2," Anchorage Daily News, August 22, 1977, Ibid; "A d-2 field Journal," Alaska Advocate, August 25, 1977, Ibid. In Anchorage, some fifty-one percent generally favored the general principles in H.R. 39, while in Fairbanks two-thirds opposed. Activity report No. 20, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, September 27, 1977, Box 23, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

80. Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1983; Seiberling Plans D2 Amendments," Anchorage Times, July 8, 1977, AK-5, Crandell Papers; Seiberling will Amend law to allow wilderness mining," Ketchikan Daily News, July 8, 1977, Ibid.; "Udall 'we probably chewed off too much instant wilderness,'" Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, August 20, 1977, Ibid.; "D2 Hearing Ended; Udall Says Bill to be Scaled Down," Anchorage Times, August 22, 1977, Ibid.

81. Cynthia Wilson to Alaska Working Group, October 14, 1977, doc. no. 000808, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Cynthia Wilson to Undersecretary, et. al., October 25, 1977, doc. no. 000764, Ibid.; H. R. 39 [Committee Print, October 12, 1977]; H.R. 39 [Committee Print], October 18, 1977; [Alaska National Interest Lands Print no. 2, October 28, 1977]; Comparison of the House Interior Print Neptune for H.R. 39 with the Administration Position of September 15, 1977, Legislation, Box 4, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1978, Report of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, . . . together with Additional, Dissenting, and Supplemental Views and Additional Comments to Accompany H.R. 39, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 1978, part 1, p. 77.

82. Don Young to Members, Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands, October 17, 1977, Legislation, September-October 1977, Box 4, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; John F. Seiberling, Teno Roncalio, and Philip Burton, "Supplemental Views—Wrangell-St. Elias Park/Perserve in Report to Accompany H.R. 39, April 7, 1978, part 1, pp. 389-89; Statement of John F. Seiberling, Congressional Record, House, December 15, 1977, reproduced in John F. Seiberling to "Dear Colleague," January 12, 1978, Crandell Papers.

83. Other interest groups—conservationists, Natives, state, and JFSLUPC—also had input. See, for example, Deborah von Hoffman to James Joseph, February 6, 1976, Doc. no. 000261, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

84. Cecil B. Andrus to John F. Seiberling, January 13, 1978, Crandell Papers; H.R. 39 [Committee Print No. 2] October 28, 1977.

85. Activity Report No. 23, Assistant to the Secretary for Alaska, November 22, 1971, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Report on H.R. 39, April 7, 1978, part 1, p. 77; John F. Seiberling to "Dear Colleague," January 12, 1977, Crandell Papers; Cynthia Wilson to Under-secretary, et. al., February 13, 1978, doc. no. 000775, ANILCA Papers, USDI; National Park System Proposals, Summary of Subcommittee Recommendations, January 25, 1978, Box 18, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; H. R. 39, [Subcommittee Print showing the substitute adopted by the Subcommittee on General Oversight and Alaska Lands], February 10, 1978.

86. Meeds 'd-2' Proposal," undated MS, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "An Alaskan Brawl Envelops Meeds," Seattle Post-Intelligencer, December 24, 1977, Ibid.; "Young Loses on d-2 vote," Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, January 18, 1978 and "Panel Rejects Meeds' Proposal." Anchorage Times, January 18, 1978, Crandell Papers; Alaska Briefing Papers-Alaska Lands Legislative History, undated MS, [1979], Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983. Meeds proposal, which was written in close cooperation with the staff of the JFSLUPC, would be subsequently introduced as H.R. 10467 (January 19, 1978), H.R. 10888 (February 9, 1978), and H.R. 12703 (May 12, 1978). It was intended as a compromise between the Alaska congressional delegation's position and H.R. 39. In addition to establishing a "national wildlands category, Meeds attempted to reduce "instant wilderness" to 10,000,000 acres, give the Secretary of the Interior discretionary authority to allow transportation corridors, and allow the "carefully controlled" exploration and extraction of oil and gas on all lands except parks, monuments and wilderness areas.

87. Congressional Record, House, May 18, 1978, p. 4234-235.

88. Briefing Papers-Alaska Lands Legislation Legislative History, undated MS, [1979], Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Congressional Record, House, May 18, 1978, p. 4237.

89. Report on H.R. 39, April 7, 1978, pp. 388-89. Cecil Andrus to Morris Udall, March 2, 1978, ANILCA Papers, USDI. The committee did place Kantishna Hills in Denali National Preserve rather than in the park, and transferred 1,000,000 acres from park to preserve status in the Wrangells, opening, according to John Seiberling, Teno Roncalio, and Phillip Burton, most of the usable, accessible area to sport hunting and possibly other incompatible uses.

90. Morris K. Udall to James J. Delaney, April 16, 1978, Crandell Papers; Report to Accompany on H.R. 39, pp. 253-55. The total acreage recommended for preserves was some 2,500,000 acres more than that recommended by the administration

91. Report to Accompany H.R. 39, April 7, 1978, part 1, pp. 137, 146, and passim; Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1983.

92. U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1978: Report Together with Additional, Dissenting, and Supplemental Views and Additional Comments to Accompany H.R. 39, 95th Cong., 2d sess., 1978, H.R. 96-1045, Part II, pp. 31-34; John Seiberling and Morris Udall to Thomas P. O'Neil, Jr., February 9, 1978, AK-S Crandell Papers. The 1973 Morton proposals had been jointly referred to the two committees.

93. Report to Accompany H.R. 39, May 4, 1978, Part II, pp. 3-5, 35. Included among the refuges were a 22,500,000-acre North Slope National Wildlife Refuge (National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska), and Copper River National Wildlife Refuge, an area the Interior Department had recommended be managed by the Forest Service.

94. U.S. Congress, House, A Bill to Designate Certain Lands in the State of Alaska as Units of the National Park, National Wildlife Refuge, Wild and Scenic Rivers and National Wilderness Preservation Systems, and for other Purposes, H.R. 12625, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., 1978; speech of Morris Udall, Congressional Record, House, May 17, 1978, p. 4090. Substitutes are often given the number of the original bill, depending upon a ruling from the chair. Because H.R. 39 was identified around the nation with the Alaska lands issue, it was particularly important to supporters to maintain that number.

95. Congressional Record, House, May 17, 1978, p. 4088; Cahn, Wild Alaska, pp. 19-21; Interview with James Pepper, November 9, 1983.

96. Congressional Record, House, May 18, 1978, pp. 4235-4256. Among deletions in the Young amendment, which failed by a vote of 251-141, were 200,000 acres in Gates of the Arctic, 150,000 in Lake Clark, and 150,000 in Noatak.

97. Congressional Record, House, May 19, 1978; pp. 4238-4239.

98. Additionally, lands adjacent to the proposed Noatak National Preserve east of the main channel of the Noatak River would automatically become part of that proposal if not conveyed to the village of Noatak.

99. The figures given for additions to the refuge system are approximate, and involved a north slope wildlife refuge (National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska) that totalled some 23,300,000 acres.

100. U.S., Congress, House, An Act to Designate Certain Lands in the State of Alaska as Units of the National Park, . . . and for other Purposes, H.R. 39, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 19, 1978; Richard O. Curry to Director, May 24, 1978, Secretary of the Interior, Denali Keyman Files, Box 28, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

101. Ibid.

102. Ibid.

103. U.S., Congress, Senate, A Bill to designate certain lands in the State of Alaska as units of the National Park, . . . to establish a Federal-state Land Use Planning Commission, to establish procedures for the management of fish and wildlife on public lands in Alaska, and for other purposes, S.2944, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., April 19,1978; Anchorage Daily News, May 11, 1978, Crandell Papers; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, June 28, 1978, ARO Clipping File, Special Collections Division, DPL: Fairbanks Daily News-Miner July 12, 1978, Ibid.; The Washington Post, May 20, 1978, Crandell Papers.

104. "Stevens sees no rush on new federal parks," Anchorage Daily News, August 9, 1977 and the Washington Post, May 20, 1978, Crandell Papers.

105. Anchorage Daily News, May 11, 1978, Ibid. ; Fairbanks Daily News Miner, June 6, 1978, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Anchorage Times, September 8, 1978, Box 1, Alaska Coalition Papers.

106. Hearings on S.1787, . . . et. al., 1975; U.S. Congress, Senate, Alaska Natural Resource Issues and Alaska National Interest Lands Legislative Hearings on S. 499 . . , et. al., 95th Cong., 2nd sess, 1978; U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Alaska National Interest Lands Workshops, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., 1978.

107. Report to Accompany H.R. 39, 1978, p. 112.

108. U.S., Congress, Senate, Designating Certain Lands in the State of Alaska as Units of the National Park, National Wildlife Refuge, National Wild and Scenic Rivers, and National Wilderness Preservation Systems, and for other purposes, Report together with Minority, Additional and Supplemental Views to Accompany H.R. 39, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., 197 S. Rept. 95-1300, p. 112. In addition to H.R. 39, other bills before the Senate were S.499, S.500 (Jackson, January 28, 1977), S.1500 (Metcalf, May 12, 1977), Amendment no. 2176 to S. 1500 (Durkin, May 16, 1978), 5. 1783 (Stevens, June 30, 1977), S.2944 (Gravel, April 15, 1978), and S. 2465 (Jackson, January 31, 1978 [proposals of the Carter Administration]). Related bills were S.1546 (Abourezk), S.3016 (Gravel and Stevens), and S.3303 [proposed by the Administration, containing provisions to improve implementation of ANCSA].

109. Ibid.; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, June 28, 1978, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL.

110. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 21. The privilege, which is often given senators whose state is affected by pending legislation, did not extend to voting on the committee.

111. In fact Senator Gravel actually made the work of the committee more difficult. Invoking a rule that forbade a committee from meeting while the full Senate is in session, Gravel forced the committee to hold meetings in early morning and in the evening in order to complete work before adjournment. The tactic certainly did not endear him to committee members. Interview with James Pepper, November 8, 1983.

112. Report to Accompany H.R. 39, October 9, 1978, passim; Alaska d-2 Lands Senate Briefing #3, Summary of Key Issues, FWP Weekly Report, October 11, 1978, Box 8, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

113. Ibid. Additionally the committee recommended a 386,000-acre National Recreation Area in the Kelly River watershed in the Noatak.

114. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 22; Cecil Andrus and Bob Bergland To Walter Mondale, November 19, 1978, doc. no. 001787, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Deadline near for Alaska Lands Bill," Washington Post, September 17, 1978, Crandell Papers; John Sieberling to Henry Jackson, August 1, 1978, Box 34, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI [letter stating House position on H. R. 39] .

115. So sure were Interior Department staff that nothing more would be done, Secretary Andrus had left for vacation. Jim Pepper, an NPS employee then working as Cynthia Wilson s assistant had taken a plane to New York City. When he arrived a message waited directing him to return to Washington to work on a possible compromise. Interview of Pepper, November 8, 1983.

116. Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1983.

117. Briefing Paper-Alaska Lands Legislation, Legislative History, undated MS [1979], Belous Files, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "Ad Hoc Negotiations, '78," Box 32, Ibid.; "Alaska Lands Legislation, What Happened. What Next?" FWP Weekly Report, October 18, 1978, Box 6, Ibid. ; Interviews of Harry Crandell, Cynthia Wilson, Jim Pepper, Richard Stenmark.

118. "Here's Gravel's Account of the D2 Meetings," and " 'I kept my word to Stevens,' " Anchorage Times, October 15 and 20, 1978, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL. On the 12th, Interior Department officials met with Senator Stevens to discuss possible areas of compromise. Bob [Herbst] to Secretary Andrus, October 12, 1978, Ad Hoc Negotiations, '78, Box 32, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

119. Bill Horn, Briefing Paper, H.R. 39 Legislative History: 95th Congress, January 23, 1978, Box 31, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of Cynthia Wilson, December 1983; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983. Representative Young also participated, and after the 12th, Senator Clifford Hansen, minority leader of the Senate Energy Committee attended.

The presence of Secretary Andrus and his assistant, Cynthia Wilson, as full partners in a congressional conference was most extraordinary.

120. D. Michael Harvey to Cynthia Wilson, January 1979, Pepper Files, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve.

121 . Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 22; "Ad Hoc Negotiations 78," Box 32, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Senator Mike Gravel Reports to Alaskans, November 1978, Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

Interestingly, the transportation corridors Gravel listed, save that across the Stikine River, had been identified by the Interior Department in 1974. Secretary. Morton shelved the plan at that time, following outcry from conservationists and Natives. See, USDI, Multimodel Transportation and Utility Corridor Systems in Alaska. Generalized Description of the 40 Primary Corridors: Locations, Modes, Identifying Agencies, Purposes, Environmental Impacts, and Status of Lands Crossed (Washington, D.C.: USDI, November 1974); Arnold, Native Land Claims, pp. 270-71.

122. "Ad hoc" bill, undated [October 14, 1978], Xerox copy provided the author by Cynthia Wilson; "Ad Hoc Compromise," October 14, 1978, Box 35, NPS WASO Files, USDI; "Compromise D-2 Bill Summary Outline," Ibid.

123. D. Michael Harvey to Cynthia Wilson, January 1979, Pepper Files, Gates of the Arctic National Park/Preserve; John F. Seiberling to Bruce Vento, January 29, 1979, in U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1979: Report together with Dissenting Supplemental and Separate Views to Accompany H.R. 39, 96th Cong., 1st sess., H. Report 96-97, part 1, pp. 609-10; Congressional Record, House, May 8, 1979, p. 2851; Statement of . . . Cecil Andrus Before the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on H.R. 39, . . . February 13, 1979, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, USDI; Interviews of Harry Crandell, Cynthia Wilson, James Pepper and Dick Stenmark.

Senator Stevens and Representative Young, on the other hand, believed that an agreement had been reached. Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, May 10, 1979, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Bill Horn, Briefing Papers-H. R. 39, Legislative History: 95th Congress, January 23, 1979, Box 31, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

124. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 23; Interviews of Crandell, Wilson, Pepper, and Stenmark; Congressional Record, House, October 14, 1978, p. 12978; Congressional Record, Senate, October 14, 1978, pp. 19135-141

As a sidelight, John Seiberling, fearful that Gravel might attempt to curtail the President's authority to act under the Antiquities Act, stayed on the floor of the House to examine every piece of legislation from Saturday afternoon until 7:00 p.m. Sunday night, a stretch of thirty-one hours. The importance of preventing such an action follows.

125. "Here's Gravels's Account of the D2 Meeting," Anchorage Times, October 15, 1978, ARO Clippings Files, Special Collections Division, DPL.

126. Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1983 and Chuck Clusen, December 6, 1983.

Even had the bill gone forward a series of strengthening amendments had been introduced in the Senate, and were lying on the table. This suggests that reaching a successful conclusion in the few remaining hours would have been difficult in any case. For example, U.S. Congress, Senate, To Extend statutory protection under the 1964 Wilderness Act to critical lands in Alaska, Amdt. No. 4523, Calendar No. 1215, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., October 10, 1978.

127. As late as September 15, for example, Secretary Andrus had promised "to make sure that the National Treasures of Alaskan Wilds are protected. . . . We have no intention of letting Alaska become a private preserve for a handful of rape, ruin and run developers." USDI, News Release, September 15, 1978.

128. Richard C. Curry to Assistant Director, Planning and Development, July 15, 1978, Box 39, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

129. Sue Kemnitzer to Alaska Policy Group, July 7, 1978, Box 32, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; John D. Leshy to Kemnitzer, July 14, 1978, Ibid.; Bill Reffalt to Kemnitzer, July 14, 1978, Ibid., Robert Herbst to Kemnitzer, July 20, 1978, Ibid.; James Moorman to Kay A. Oberly and Jacques B. Gelin, August 1, 1978, Ibid.; Moorman to Kathy Fletcher, August 8, 1978, Ibid. ; Guy Martin to Secretary Andrus, November 27, 1978, Box 14, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.; Cynthia Wilson to Secretary Andrus, November 27, 1978, doc. 001162, Ibid.

130. Task Directive, Alaska Administrative Alternatives Analysis, undated [1978] MS, material in possession of Jon Haman, Denver Service Center; Terry Carlstrom to Sue Kemnitzer, September 21, 1975, Ibid.; Robert Herbst to Director, NPS, September 12, 1978, Ibid.; Alaska D2 Administrative Alternative Action Task Force responsibilities, undated MS [1978], Ibid. The NPS was the lead agency in this undertaking, and Terry Carlstrom, of the NPS's Denver Service Center, served as task force leader.

131. FWP Weekly Report, September 13, 1978, Box 6, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; USDI, Draft Environment Supplement, Alternative Administrative Actions Alaska National Interest Lands (Washington, D.C. . 1978); Cynthia Wilson to Dear Reviewer, October 25, 1978, Box 28, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers; USDI, Final Environmental Supplement Alternative Actions Alaska National Interest Lands (Washington, D.C.: USDI, 1978).

132. William J. Whalen to Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, November 9, 1978 and November 20, 1978, doc. no. 003040, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

133. Ibid. ; Cynthia Wilson to Dear Reviewer, October 25, 1978, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Draft Environmental Supplement, p. 1-4; Harry Crandell to Cynthia Wilson, September 25, 1978, Crandell Papers.

134. "Andrus vows he will 'protect' Alaska land," Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, August 1 , 1978, ARO Clipping File, Special Collections Division, DPL; "Carter may issue edict on parks," Anchorage Daily News, August 19, 1978, Ibid.; "Andrus set to Invoke 1906 Act," Anchorage Times, October 17, 1978; Ibid.; John Seiberling to Cecil D. Andrus, August 17, 1978, Box 13, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; John M. Murphy, et. al. to President Carter, November 15, 1978, AK-5, Crandell Papers [letter from over 100 congressmen encouraging the President to take comprehensive action to protect Alaska lands]; Lawrence Rockefeller et. al. to President Carter, November 30, 1978, Ibid; Alaska Coalition, Special Report on: Presidential Action to Protect Alaska's Wilderness, December 6, 1978, Ibid.

135. William J. Whalen to Assistant Secretary for Fish Wildlife and Parks, July 18, 1978 and November 9, 1978, doc. no. 003040, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

136. Interview of Cynthia Wilson, December 6, 1983.

137. "State selections within 1979 Administration Proposals for Parks," February 22, 1979, Breedlove Papers, HFC; USDI, Report for Alaska Land Withdrawals, Section 204(e) of PL 94-587 (Washington, D.C. : USDI, November 16, 1978) p. vi. Calculations of the amount of state selection land within conservation areas differs. The latter indicates the figure was in excess of 14,000,000 acres.

138. USDI, News Release, November 16, 1978; Anchorage Times, November 16, 1978, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Alaska National Interest Lands Administrative Withdrawals, undated MS, Box 24, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers USDI; USDI, USGS, "Alaska Administrative FLPMA Withdrawals," January 1, 1979, map in ARO. NPS acreage amounted to 44,030,000 acres, while refuges totaled 63,140,000, and wild and scenic rivers, 3,580,000 acres.

139. USDI, News Release, December 1, 1978, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Office of the White House Press Secretary, Statement by the President, December 1, 1978, Ibid.; Monuments, February 1, 1979, Box 17, Ibid [comparison of the administration's 1978 recommendations and monument boundaries]. Illustration 13 is a map of the monuments.

140. Statement of the President, December 1, 1978, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Roger Contor to Files, January 16, 1979, L3215, Public land (204(e)) withdrawals, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; "Withdrawals," draft by Roger Contor, January 26, 1979, Box 26, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

141. State of Alaska vs. Carter, et. al., Civ. no. A 78-291, October 30, 1978; Luzader, "Litigation"; Statement of Cecil Andrus, Secretary of the Interior before the Senate Energy National Resources Committee, Concerning S.1176, A Bill to Amend the 1906 Antiquities Act and Federal Land Policy Management Act, 1976, September 13, 1979, doc. no. 001189, ANILCA Papers, USDI. The state's suit was only one of a number that challenged executive actions in Alaska. Anaconda Copper Company, CMAL, Bristol Bay Native Corporation, Alaskans for Independence, Cominsco, Inc. , and several hunters who faced prosecution for illegal hunting in the national monuments also challenged the withdrawals.

142. "Our View: The real root of the freeze," Anchorage Daily News, December, 1978, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; December 12, 1978, January 13, 1979, Ibid. ; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, February 1, 1979 and March 13, 1979, Ibid.; David F. McAllister, Case Report, January 11, 1979, L-58, Great Denali Trespass, Park Files, Denali National Park/Preserve. Zorro Bradley, who directed the Park Service's Cooperative Park Studies Unit at the University of Alaska at Fairbanks, could not get the road to his home plowed. Interview, December 7, 1983.

143. Resolution of City of Eagle, December 11, 1978, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. For a fascinating description of Eagle and the Alaska Bush, see McPhee, Coming into the Country, pp. 183-438.

144. Douglas Warnock, "Recollections of First Trip to Eagle, Alaska," 1983, Xerox copy given author by Mr. Warnock; Interview of John Cook, January 25, 1984; Interview of Douglas Warnock, August, 6, 1984; Interview of William E. Brown, March 15, 1983; Personal Observation, July 1983. Mr. Cook's visit to Eagle was one of several trips to areas where resentment of the monuments and NPS ran particularly high.

This particular sign, which was attached to a building on the only road into Eagle, was still there in the summer of 1983. This is not to imply that it then reflected anything more than the views of the individual who owned the building to which it was attached.

145. Jerry Gilliand to Robert Herbst, February 26, 1979, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

146. Roger Contor to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest Region, November 30, 1978, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of G. Ray Bane by Frank Williss, July 15, 1983. Bane, a NPS anthropologist, lived for years in bush Alaska before joining the Service. He experienced first-hand the problems when some long-standing acquaintances would no longer speak to him or his wife, Barbara, after designation of the monuments.

147. Contor to R.D., PNW, November 30, 1978; David A. Watts to Juanita Alvarez, December 5, 1978, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

148. Federal Register, vol. 44, June 28, 1979, part II, pp. 37732-37751; Part III, pp. 37784-37785; Robert Herbst to Cecil Andrus, June 8, 1979, Monument Regulations, Box 2, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Hearings on Proposed "National Park Service Regulations," Anchorage, August 15, 1979, Office of Regional Law Enforcement Specialist, ARO; Summary of proposed regulations in Alaska, June 1979, doc. no. 000215, Ibid [comparison of NPS and USFS proposed regulations with those in lower 48."]. Both the FWS and USFS, on the other hand, allowed sport hunting in the four monuments under their control.

149. "Uphill fight for state in Alaska lands battle," Anchorage Daily News, December 28, 1978, ARO Clipping File, Special Collections Division, DPL.

150. Ibid.; Anchorage Times, January 29, 1979, Ibid.; Esther C. Wunnicke and Walter B. Parker to Mike Gravel, December 29, 1978, AK-6, Crandell Papers; Testimony of Terry Miller, Lieutenant Governor of Alaska before the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation, February 22, 1979, Box 30, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Jerry Gilliand to Robert Herbst, February 26, 1979, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, Ibid.

151 . Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 24; Anchorage Daily News, June 24, 1979, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL. State officials had drawn up seven basic points they insisted must be met: title to all land selected, including the November 14, 1978 selections; state management of fish and wildlife; exclusion of viable resources from conservation units; guaranteed access across those units; a "no more" clause that would prohibit future withdrawals by executive action; guarantees for "the continuation of traditional Alaskan lifestyles," and revocation of all actions taken by the Carter administration in 1978.

152. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 4.; Anchorage Daily News, May 8, 1979, ARO Clippings File, Special Collections Division, DPL. CMAL had spent $650,000 the previous year. The amount was five times that spent by the Alaska Coalition. Most of the lobbying by the Coalition, however, came from nonpaid volunteers, however.

153. Congressional Record, House, January 15, 1979, pp. 43, 129; May 8, 1979, p. 2851. Eventually 150 members had signed on as co-sponsors. The bill was referred jointly to the Interior and Insular Affairs and Merchant Marine committees.

154. H.R. 39, Section Analysis, January 31, 1979, Box 17, NPS WASO Files, USDI; FWP Weekly Report, January 17, 1979, Box 6, Ibid.; William J. Whalen to Robert Herbst, January 24, 1979. Alaska Legislature—96th Congress, Box 18, Ibid.; Summary of Provisions of Alaska National Interest Lands Act of 1979 [1979], Box 1, Alaskan Coalition Papers; Anchorage Daily News, February 9, 1979, ARO Clippings Files, Special Collections Division, DPL [an article describing Representative Don Young's analysis of the differences between the 1978 and 1979 versions of H.R. 39.].

Additionally, the new bill did not include a mechanism for creating a cooperative management area in the Bristol Bay region.

155. Cynthia Wilson to Secretary, January 3, 1979, Box 9, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

156. Ibid. ; William J. Whalen to Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife and Parks [Robert Herbst], January 24, 1979, Box 32, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Robert Herbst to Secretary, January 26, 1979, Ibid.; Cynthia Wilson to Alaska Policy Group, February 1, 1979, Crandell Papers; Cecil D. Andrus to Morris K. Udall, February 26, 1979, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, USDI; Morris K. Udall to all members, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, February 23, 1979, Box 4, Alaska Coalition Papers.

157. H.R. 39—Detail Status Steps, January-May 1979, Box 2, Alaska Coalition Papers; U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1979: Report together with dissenting Supplemental and Separate Views to Accompany H.R. 39, 96th Congress, 1979, H. Rept. 96-97, Part I, p. 144; Morris Udall and John Seiberling to Cosponsors of H.R. 39, March 13, 1979, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

158. FWP Weekly Report, March 7, 1979, Box 6, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Cecil Andrus to John M. Breaux, March 21, 1979, Doc. No. 001748, Ibid.; Andrus to John M. Murphy, March 29, 1979, Box 17, Ibid.; [Committee Print] [March 28, 1979] [Amendment to H.R. 39, as introduced, offered by Mr. Breaux]; John Breaux to members, Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation and the Environment, March 25, 1979, Box 34, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; U.S., Congress, Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Alaska National Interest Lands Act, 1979, Report Together with Supplemental and Dissenting Views to Accompany H.R. 39, 96th Cong., 1st. sess., 1979, H.R. 96-977, Part II, pp. 171; National Wildlife Federation, Conservation Report, part 2, April 13, 1979, Crandell Papers.

159. Alaska Coalition, Alaska Status Report, Critique of the Huckaby Substitute, February 27, 1979, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; FWP Weekly Report, March 7, 1979, Box 6, Ibid., Comparison of Pending Alaska Legislation, April 27, 1979, Ibid.; Alaska Coalition, Impact of Huckaby Substitute on H.R. 39, February 28, 1979, Box 23, Ibid.; Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission, "Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Legislation, H.R. 2199 (Huckaby)—1979," map provided author by Richard Stenmark; James M. Lambe to Chief, Office of Legislation, April 11, 1979, Box 34, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

160. Anchorage Daily News, March 9, 1979, ARO Clippings Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Morris Udall and John Seiberling to Co-Sponsors, March 13, 1979, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

161. U.S. Congress, House, A Bill to Provide for the Designation and Conservation of Certain Public Lands in the State of Alaska . . . , H.R. 3651 , 96th Cong., 1st sess., May 23, 1979; Congressional Record, House, May 23, 1979, p. 2509.

162. Anchorage Times, and Anchorage Daily News, May 17, 1979; ARO Clippings Files, Special Collections Division, DPL. For an excellent account of the lobbying efforts of the Alaskan Coalition prior to and during House action in May 1979, see Cahn, Wild Alaska, pp. 23-27.

163. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 25; Neal Knox to NRA Members, April 26, 1979, AK-7, Crandell Papers; Speech of Ted Stevens, Congressional Record, Senate, May 14, 1979, p. 5717; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, May 11, 1979, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Washington Post, May 17, 1979, Box 4, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Emergence of gun control as a principal issue was certainly one of the most improbable occurrences in the entire legislative history of the Alaska national interest lands. The question revolved around the amount of land to be closed to sport hunting in the bill. Yet, by the Department of the Interior's calculations, the Breaux-Dingell proposal would have closed 5.3 percent of the lands to hunting, Huckaby, 5.5 percent, and Udall-Anderson, only slightly more at 7.5 percent. Cynthia Wilson to Secretary, et. al, April 27, 1979, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

164. Congressional Record, House, May 16, 1979, p. 3291; Cahn, Wild Alaskan, p. 25.

165. FWP Weekly Reports, May 9, 1979, Box 14, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Congressional Record, House, May 15, 1979, p. 3132; May 16, 1979, pp. 3385-3386; Anchorage Times, May 17, 1979. A ruling from the chair gave the Udall-Anderson substitute the original number H.R. 39. The final margin of victory may have been at least partially due to a "bandwagon" effect. The margin of difference was generally ten to twenty votes in favor of Udall-Anderson until the total reached about 200 votes. At that time, the margin grew considerably.

166. S-9, January 15, 1979; Ted Stevens to John C. Culver, January 10, 1979, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Cecil Andrus to Henry Jackson, July 17, 1979, Ibid.; U.S., Senate, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Alaska National Interest Lands: Report Together with Additional Views to Accompany H.R. 39, 96th Cong., 1st sess., 1979, S. Rept. 96-413, p. 135.

On January 25, Senator John Durkin with twenty co-sponsors had introduced a counterpart to H.R. 39 (S-222).

167. S. Report to Accompany H.R. 39, 1979, p. 134; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 25.

168. Ted Stevens to John Culver, Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

169. S. Report to Accompany H.R. 39, 1979, p. 134; Secretary [Andrus] to Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, September 12, 1979, doc. no. 001849, ANILCA Papers, USDI; William J. Whalen to Assistant Secretary, Fish and Wildlife and Parks, August 30, 1979, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

All potential parklands to be withdrawn under section 204(c) (described on p. 218) would, according to Secretary Andrus, continue to be managed by the BLM in close cooperation with the Park Service.

170. S. Report to Accompany H.R. 39, 1979, pp. 135-36; S.9 As Reported by the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on October 30, 1979, undated MS, Box 27, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee Mark-up of S-9 Adopted, October 31, 1979, Box 38, Ibid.; Robert Herbst to Cecil Andrus, November 19, 1979, Box 9, Ibid.; Cecil D. Andrus to Walter F. Mondale, November 19, 1979, Ibid.; Congressional Record, November 15, 1979, p. 32622. One difference between the 1978 and 1979 versions, was a provision eliminating 100,000 acres from proposed wilderness in Misty Fjords National Monument to allow U.S. Borax Co. to develop its molybdenum claim. This was, said Tsongas, the most hotly debated issue in the mark-up sessions.

171. "NPS Amendments to H.R. 39 as Reported by Senate, November 1979 (S.9), undated Ms, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 25.

172. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 25; Congressional Record, Senate, November 15, 1979, p. 32622; Amendment No. 626, Calendar 442, November 15, 1979; "Tsongas-Roth Substitute," undated MS, Box 8, Alaska Coalition Papers.

173. Congressional Record, Senate, February 8, 1980, p. 1378; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 26, Anchorage Times, January 23 and 30, 1979 and Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, February 5 and 8, 1979, AK-7, Crandell Papers. Senator Tsongas apparently hoped to avoid a filibuster when the bill came before the full Senate. Nevertheless the agreement was a clear victory for Alaskan senators, who wanted to delay a vote as long as possible and who clearly indicated that the final bill would be written in conference. Senator Stevens, at least, believed that it would have been virtually impossible to block a stronger bill early on in the session.

174. USDI, News Release, February 12, 1980, Office of the Regional Director, ARO; USDI, USGS, "Alaska, Administration FLPMA withdrawals, February 11, 1980," map in ARO.

175. Ibid.; USDI, Report for Alaska Land withdrawals Section 204(c) of FLPMA (P.L. 94-579) (Washington, D.C. : USDI, February 11, 1980), Chapter 3, pp. 1-38.

176. USDI, New Release, February 12, 1980; Ira J. Hutchinson to Director BLM, March 11, 1980 [encloses draft cooperative agreement for management of the four natural resource areas], Box 38, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

177. Cahn, Wild Alaska, pp. 26-27; "Alaska Shifts d-2 Blitz into High Gear," Anchorage Daily News, June 14, 1980, Crandell Papers; New York Times, May 14, 1980, Ibid.; Jay Hammond to Joseph P. Teasdale, March 11, 1980, doc. no. 001944, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Neal Knox [Executive Director, National Rifle Association] to Patrick Leahy, June 16, 1980, doc. no. 001980, Ibid.; Mike Gravel, News Release, April 17, 1980, AK-7 Crandell Papers.

178. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 27; Amendment no. 1782. Others ready to follow were: No. 1779 - National Parks Amendment (Tsongas and Mathias), No. 1780 - Rivers and Transportation (Proxmire and Eagleton), No. 1781 - Wilderness (Nelson and Levin), and No. 1783 - National Forests (Tsongas, Roth, and McGovern).

179. Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 27; Edgar Wayburn, "Alaska Lands Bill in Senate, Slowdowns and Showdowns," undated MS, Crandell Papers.

180. "Open Letter to Senator Stevens," July 17, 1980, Anchorage Daily News, July 17, 1980, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; "The GOP Position," Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, May 7, 1980, Republican position, state convention resolution, AK-7, Crandell Papers; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 27; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983; Colloquy on Tsongas-Jackson Compromise Amendment, undated MS, Box 27, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. The last is a draft of a series of questions and answers, designed to clarify provisions of a amendment, and to establish some form of legislative history on key provisions.

181. Congressional Record, Senate, August 18, 1980, pp. 11050, 11140; August 19, 1980, p. 11203. Both senators Gravel and Stevens voted against the bill.

182. Quoted in Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 29; Seattle Post Intelligencer, August 22, 1980, K-34, Press Releases, ARO Central Files - Inactive, ARO; Interview of James Pepper, November 8, 1983.

183. Committee Staff to Morris K. Udall, September 29, 1980, Ibid. [detailing a counter-offer from Senator Stevens]; Oliver Leavitt to John F. Seibering, September 17, 1980, Ibid.; Interview of Curtis E. Bohlen, III, October 10, 1983, James Pepper, November 8, 1983, Chuck Clusen December 6, 1983. Among the changes suggested by the House were transfer of the 300,000-acre N.E. preserve of Gates of the Arctic to a park, modified language on the transportation corridor across the "boot," transfer of nearly 900,000 acres from preserve to park in Denali, addition of a Copper River Wildlife Refuge, and the addition of some 6,000,000 in wilderness acreage (1,000,000 of it in the National Park System).

184. Morris K. Udall to President Carter, October 14, 1980, doc. no. 002072, ANILCA Papers, USDI; U.S. Congress, House, To Amend the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, and for other purposes. H. R. 8311 , 96th Cong. , 2nd sess. , October 3, 1980; News from Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, October 1, 1980, Crandell Papers; H.R. 8311: Summary Provisions to Amend the Senate-Passed Alaska Lands Bill, October 2, 1980, Box 4, Alaska Coalition Papers; Interview of Harry Crandell, December 7, 1984.

Designed to appeal to a broader audience, the bill would have, among other things, added 3,700,000 acres of wilderness to Senate's bill, while providing for seismic oil exploration of the coastal plain of Arctic National Wildlife Range, and opening an additional 1,000,000 acres of national park land to sport hunting in Wrangell-St. Elias (635,000 acres), Denali (235,000 acres), and Lake Clark (140,000 acres).

185. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, p. 300; "Grim Reality Comes to Victims of Tuesday's Massacre," Washington Post, November 6, 1980, Crandell Papers; News from Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, November 12, 1980, Ibid.; Congressional Record, House, November 18, 1980, pp. 10527-552.

186. Weekly compilation of Presidential Documents, vol. 16, no. 49, December 8, 1980, pp. 2753-2787. The bill President Carter signed differed from the bill passed by the Senate on August and the House on November 12 as a result of H. Concurrent Resolution 452 and 453, passed by the House on November 21 and the Senate on December 1 . Most of the changes were technical or perfecting. Others, a majority of which dealt with Native issues, were more extensive. Among other things the resolution prohibited the collection of entrance fees for National Park System units in Alaska, protected the Alaska pipeline from being affected by conservation units, and deleted a ten-year phase-out period for cabin permits in Tongass National Forest. Congressional Record, House, November 21, 1980, pp. 11111-11115; Congressional Record, Senate, December 1, 1980, pp. 15129-15132; Anchorage Daily News-Mirror, December 1, 1980, Crandell Papers.

187. Cahn, Wild Alaska, pp. 20, 29; Congressional Record, House, November 12, 1980, pp. 10530 and p. 5012; Interview of Chuck Clusen, December 8, 1983; P.L. 94-487, December 2, 1980 [ANILCA]; The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act—A summary [December 1980], Box 24, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Great Falls [Montana], Tribune, September 29, 1980, Crandell Papers.

188. P.L. 96-487, December 2, 1980. Nearly five and a half million acres of wilderness were in the National Forest System, 18,200,000 in Wildlife Refuges, and 37,400,000 in national park areas. Illustration 14 is a map of lands set aside under ANILCA.

189. P.L. 96-497, December 2, 1980; Congressional Record, House, November 17, 1980, pp. 10532- passim. In the absence of a House or Senate Report on the bill, Representative Udall presented the "explanation of those aspects of the legislation that affect the National Park system as to official legislative history of the 'Alaska National Interest Land Conservation Act.'"

The boundaries shown on official maps included federal, state, Native, and private lands. The acreage figures shown here were estimates of the probable ultimate federal acreages within the areas. Those figures are being revised as more accurate data becomes available and state and Native claims are adjudicated.

190. Congressional Record, House, November 17, 1980, p. 10528.

191. Ibid., p. 10530; Cahn, Wild Alaska, p. 30. In 1983 Senator Stevens and Representative Young would introduce legislation to redesignate portions of the parks to preserves in Katmai, Gates of the Arctic, Lake Clark, Wrangell-St. Elias, Denali, and Glacier Bay to open more land for hunting. Additionally, Kenai Fjords National Park would be redesignated as Kenai Fjords National Preserve. U.S. , Congress, House, A Bill to Designate Public Land in Alaska to Allow Hunting, H.R. 1493, 95th Cong., 1st sess. February 15, 1983. Senator Stevens and ten co-sponsors had introduced a similar bill (S. 49) on January 2, 1983. To date the bills have not enacted into law.

192. Hearings on H.R. 39, 1977, XII: p.83.

1. Keith Trexler to Ted Swem, February 16, 1974, ARO Goals, Denali Keyman Files, Box 28, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

2. Al Henson to Ted Swem, March 5, 1974, Alaska Organization - NPS, Swem Papers; Alaska Task Force Organization, April 12, 1974, History of ATFO, Henson Papers, Mancos; 'Meeting Regarding Support Data for Alaska Areas," May 7, 1974, W-38, Box 20, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Al [Henson] to Ted [Swem], [February 1974], Box 3, Ibid.; ATFO Employees as of 2/1/75, NPS Personnel - ARO, Henson Papers, Mancos. Professionals were Project Leader (Henson), Management Assistant (Keith Trexler), Park Planner (John Kauffmann), Landscape Architect (Bailey Breedlove), Public Information Officer (Bob Belous), and Special Research Analyst (Amy Paige).

3. Al [Henson] to Ted [Swem], [February 1974], A-94, Box 3, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of Al Henson and Theodor R. Swem, June 7, 1973; Ron Walker to Assistant Secretary, FWP, October 24, 1974, Alaska Organization, Swem Papers.

Henson's concerns were shared by a number of people. On March 7, 1974, for example, Celia Hunter wrote Theodor Swem, warning him that the Service's efforts to promote its proposals in Alaska were far inferior to other agencies, and would serve to convince people that it was not capable of managing the new areas. Celia Hunter to Theodor R. Swem, March 7, 1974, Alaska Organization, Swem Papers.

4. Gary Everhardt to Directorate, May 6, 1975, Alaska Task Force, A-94, Box 2, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of William E. Brown, by Frank Williss, November 10, 1983; Interview of Donald Follows by Frank Williss, November 3, 1983; Organizational Chart - Alaska Task Force, [1975], History of ATFO, Henson Papers, Mancos; Donald S. Follows, "Conceptual Interpretive Plan for Proposed Park Lands in Alaska," May 10, 1977, D-18, Planning, Programs, and Master Plans, Box 6, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Goals - Yukon-Charley Keyman, [1976], AAO: Goals, etc., Denali Keyman Files, Box 28, Ibid. Originally other keyman were Fred Eubanks (Lake Clark), John Kauffmann (Gates of the Arctic), Mark Malic (Mount McKinley), Gerald Wright (Wrangell-St. Elias), Ralph Root (Katmai and Aniakchak), and Robert Nichols (Cape Krusenstern).

Additionally task force members, particularly Al Henson, Bob Belous and Stell Newman, along with people like Zorro Bradley and Ray Bane were called back to Washington from time to time to lend their expertise on various issues.

5. Sketch of organization of Alaska Task Force, [1975], History of ATF, Henson Papers, Mancos; Biographical Sketches - ATF, November 12, 1976, Box 1, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Roy Sanborn to Project Leader, March 9, 1976, NPS Personnel - AK, Henson Papers, Mancos.

The Cooperative Park Studies Unit, which was directed by Zorro Bradley, is discussed on pp. 258-59.

6. The Fish and Wildlife Service (formerly BSF&W) employed the opposite approach in these years, using its existing Alaska office, supplemented by people detailed from the "Lower 48". That approach proved somewhat cumbersome, and that bureau later established a separate ANCSA office. Interview of William Reffalt, December 9, 1983.

7. Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984; Interview of Stanley Albright, June 29, 1984; Interview of John Rutter, May 16, 1984; John Rutter to George B. Hartzog, Jr., June 19, 1972 and John C. Rumburg to John Rutter, June 29, 1972, ANCSA Implementation, April-December 1972, Swem Papers; John Rutter to Associate Director, Legislation [Richard Curry], June 21, 1974, Ibid.; Al Henson to Dr. Curry, June 26, 1974, ANCSA Implementation, 1974, Ibid; John Rutter to Deputy Director, October 7, 1974, Denali Keyman Files, Box 30, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

For a discussion of relationship between the Park Service and the Department of the Interior in the 1970s, see Ronald A. Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1984), pp. 84-87.

8. Interview of John Rutter, May 16, 1984.

9. Franklin K. Lane to Stephen Mather, May 13, 1918. Quoted in Unrau and Williss, Expansion of the NPS, p. 27.

10. John Kauffmann, "Noatak," The Living Wilderness vol. 38 (Winter 1974-75), p. 18; Interview of John Rutter, May 16, 1984. See also, Foresta, America's National Parks and Their Keepers, pp. 112-15.

11. This view comes from a number of interviews with Alaska Task Force personnel, as well as former PWW Regional Director Rutter, former Alaska State Office Director Stanley Albright, and former Alaska Regional Director, John Cook. Cook, NPS Associate Director in the mid-1970s, recalls spending a considerable amount of time mediating disputes between the two offices.

12. In general the Advisory Board supported the Services's proposals, despite previous comments to the Alaska press that they would recommend that some of land earmarked for National Parks should be managed for other uses. Anchorage Daily News, June 21, 1975, A-16, Advisory Board, Box 1, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

13. Melvin M. Payne [Chairman, Advisory Board on National Parks] to Secretary of the Interior, April 24, 1974, Advisory Board, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

14. Peter C. Murphy, Jr., Steven Rose, et. al. to Stanley K. Hathaway, confidential telegram, June 28, 1975, Advisory Board, Box 2, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

15. Ibid.

16. J.L. Norwood to Director, December 4, 1975, Swem Correspondence, January 1975-December 1976, HFC; Gary Everhart to Assistant Secretary, FWP, December 15, 1975, Advisory Board, Box 2, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Norwood's audit included a thorough examination, and subsequent dismissal, of board member Steven Rose's charge that a conflict of interest, or at least a compromise of position existed in the Task Force's acceptance of NANA Regional Corporation's offer of $5,000-10,000 in manpower and equipment toward a study of subsistence for the Kobuk Valley.

17. Al [Henson] to Ted [Swem], [February 1974], A-94, Box 3 Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of Henson, June 6, 1983.

18. Ron Walker to Assistant Secretary, FWP, October 25, 1974, Alaska Organization, NPS, Swem Papers; Comments on New Alaska Area Office Organization and Operation (Presented by members of Park Planning Staff,) May 10, 1975, Denali Keyman Files, Box 30, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; "Statement for Gary Everhardt on changes in Alaska Organization", October 4, 1975, Advisory Board, Box 2, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Alaska Area Office, Alaska Task Force - Permanent Personnel, 12/75, NPS Personnel-AK, Henson Papers, Mancos; Russell Dickinson to Bryan Harry, June 16, 1976, Proposed Areas, 1976-77, Park Files, Denali National Park/Preserve.

19. "Statement for Gary Everhardt on changes in Alaska Organization," October 4, 1975; Gary Everhardt to Steven L. Rose, December 17, 1975, Denali Keyman Files, Box 27, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Bob Utley to Bryan Harry, February 26, 1976, A-16, Advisory Council, Box 1, Ibid.; Interview of Bryan Harry by Frank Williss, November 14, 1983; Bailey Breedlove to All Task Force Personnel, October 7, 1975, Box B, Old Federal Building Warehouse, ARO.

20. Ted Swem to Gary Everhardt, October 4, 1975, and Special Assistant to the Director [Swem] to Director [Everhardt], October 28, 1975, October 28, 1975, Alaska Organization, Swem Papers; Al Henson to Gary [Everhardt], March 26, 1976, doc. no. 002178, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Director, NPS, to Assistant Secretary, FWP, May 25, 1976 [draft], doc. no. 002204, Ibid.; WASO Directorate to Acting Assistant to the Director for Alaska, July 1, 1966, A-58, Proposed Areas, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO.

21 . Bryan Harry, for example, felt that such an action would be unnecessarily expensive, and would make the Park Service in Alaska more vulnerable to political pressure. Interview, November 14, 1983.

22. [Roger J.] Contor, Discussion Paper—Future Administrative Plans for Alaska," March 9, 1978, Box 40, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Juanita Alvarez, Notes, Alaska Planning Meeting, May 19, [1978], Box 18, Ibid.; Alaska Planning Meetings, May 11, 1978, Ibid.; Bryan Harry to Roger Contor, June 6, 1978, Box 1, Ibid.

23. Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984; Interview of Douglas Warnock, August 6, 1984. Time and again, the political volatility of the Alaska situation had forced the NPS director to make decisions without consulting subordinates in the line organization. Evidence suggests that Director Whalen's decision was made without informing the Washington Office or Pacific Northwest Regional Office. See Assistant to the Director for Alaska, September 20, 1978, Box 89, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI and Talking Paper for November 6 Meeting with Mr. Herbst, draft, Contor, 11/5/78, Ibid.

24. Interview of John Cook, Jan. 26, 1984; Interview of Douglas Warnock, August 15, 1984. Janet McCabe and Keith Shreiner became area directors for the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service and Fish & Wildlife Service at the same time.

25. Secretary [Cecil Andrus] to Solicitor, et al, December 2, 1980 [ANILCA Implementation Directive], ANILCA Papers, USDI.

26. Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984; "ARO: A Regional Office," Courier, The National Park Service Newsletter, vol. 4, no. 1, (January 1981), p. 2.

27. Albert G. Henson to Area Director, June 15, 1976, ANCSA Implementation, 1975-76, Swem Papers.

28. Biographical Sketches", November 12, 1976, Box 1, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Summary of Interview of Gerald Wright by Michael Lappen, February 13, 1984, typescript in author's possession; R. Gerald Wright to Assistant to the Director, for Alaska, June 1, 1979, Box 16, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; R. Gerald Wright, "Sport Hunting in the Proposed Alaskan Parks - A Philosophical Discussion," June 22, 1977, L-58, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO. Both Gordon and Shaine were Alaska residents and familiar to residents of the Wrangell-Saint Elias area.

29. Interview of William E. Brown, November 10, 1983; Trip Reports - Yukon-Charley Keyman, August 28-September 2, 1976, September 6-9, 1976, September 9-14, etc., Box 46, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Goals - Yukon-Charley [1976], AAO: Goals, etc., Denali Keyman File, Box 28, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Quoted in Everhart, National Park Service (1982 edition), p. 140.

30. Interview of John Kauffmann, December 5, 1983; Goals - Keyman, Gates of the Arctic, AAO: Goals, etc., Box 28 Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle. After 1973 when the Noatak proposal once again came under NPS auspices, Kauffmann assumed responsibility for that area.

31 . Al Henson to Jerome Trigg [Director, Bering Straits Native Corporation], October 3, 1975, Box 26, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Goals - Keyman - Chukchi-Imuruk [1976], AAO: Goals, etc., Denali Keyman Files, Box 28, Ibid.; T. Stell Newman, "Bering Land Bridge, Arctic Causeway to the New World," in Wilderness Parklands in Alaska, ed. by Connolly, p. 46. Dr. Newman left Alaska to become superintendent of the new War in the Pacific National Historical Park. He was killed in an automobile accident there.

32. National Park Service, Inventory of Reports and Publications Relating to Alaska, undated MS [ca. 1972], Breedlove Papers, HFC. The figure does not include the natural landmark studies. Some forty-six areas were studied as potential natural landmarks before 1972.

33. John Dennis to Al Henson, March 1, 1974, L-48, Wilderness, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Answers to Senator Steven's Questions, draft, February 1978, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; National Park Service, "Natural, Historical, and Cultural Resource Studies in Alaska," January 1978, Library, Rocky Mountain Regional Office; "Task Force Research", undated MS [ca. 1976], Senmark Files, HFC; Al Henson to Roger J. Contor, undated MS [1977], ARO Files - Old Federal Building Warehouse, ARO; Dennis, "National Park Service's Research in Alaska - 1972-76," passim; USDI, NPS, Proceedings of the First Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks, November 9-12, 1976 ed. by Robert M. Linn, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1976).

34. Report in Box 47, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Origin and Geologic Setting of the Maars Near Cape Espenberg, Alaska (1976); The Raven, Quarterly Newsletter of the Center for Northern Studies (July 1973); Dennis, "National Park Research in Alaska," 281-82. A similar multi-disciplinary resource study at Chukchi-Imuruk was produced.

35. John Kauffmann to Dan Strickland, February 24, 1977, Field Reports, Park Files, Gates of the Arctic National Park/Preserve; Interview of G. Ray Bane, July 15, 1983; Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, April 1, 1978, Belous Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL. Bane, who is an anthropologist by training, later participated in subsistence studies of the Kobuk and Koyukuk. He joined the NPS and played a crucial role as the only NPS employee permanently in any of the new areas before 1980. After passage of ANILCA he coordinated subsistence at Gates of the Arctic and northwest areas and is today management assistant at the latter.

36. Gordon Watson to Al Henson, Bill Thomas, et. al., July 30, 1975, A-94, FWS, Box 4, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC Seattle; Distribution and Density of Bald Eagle Nests, Katmai Area, Alaska (1974) and Distribution and Density of Brown Bear Denning, Katmai Area, Alaska (1974) in Box 2, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; William R. Powers, "North Alaska Range Early Man Survey," in USDI, NPS, Fourth Annual National Park Service Pacific Northwest Region Science/Management Conference ed. by Shirley A. Scott (1977), p. 41; Briefing Papers - Early Man Studies Program, November 1977, Box 17, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Proposed Research Strategy for NPS-NGS Early Man Studies, draft, 3/12/79, Box 26, Ibid.; N.W. Ten Brink to D.H. Scovill, T. Dale Stewart, and E.W. Snider, October 12, 1979, Box 23, Ibid.; John F. Hoffecka, "A Report to the National Geographic Society and National Park Service. The Search for Early Man in Alaska: Results and Recommendations of the North Alaska Range Project," 1979, Ibid.

37. T. Stell Newman to Assistant to the Director for Alaska, April 13, 1977, Box 31, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; John Dennis to Al Henson, March 1, 1974, L-48, Wilderness, Box 17, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

38. "Subsistence Activities in Proposed National Parklands, undated MS [1977], 2850-Subsistence Policy and Comments, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; T. Stell Newman to Assistant to the Director for Alaska, April 13, 1977, Box 31, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Newman to Roger Contor, August 11, 1977 [Preliminary Reports on Subsistence Research], ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Task Force Research, undated MS [1977], Stenmark Files, HFC; "Publications and Occasional Papers," Anthropology and Historic Preservation Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, undated MS, [1981], TIC, DSC; Richard K. Nelson, "Subsistence in Future Alaska Parklands: An Overview," July 1977, Subsistence, Box 1, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers USDI.

The studies mentioned above were all published as occasional papers by the Cooperative Park Studies Unit: Merry Allyn Tuten, A Preliminary Study of Subsistence Activities on the Pacific Coast of the Proposed Aniakchak Caldera National Monument, Occasional Paper No. 4 (1977); Richard A. Caulfield, Subsistence in and Around the Proposed Yukon-Charley National Rivers, Occasional Paper No. 20 (1979); Richard K. Nelson, Kathleen Mautner and G. Ray Bane, Tracks in the Wildland: A Portrayal of Koyukon and Nunamiut Subsistence, Occasional Paper No. 9, (1978).

39. Interview of George B. Hartzog, Jr., December 7, 1983; Interview of Zorro Bradley, November 7, 1983; Earl E. Chase to K.M. Rae, August 28, 1972 [enclosed contract for $35,000 for establishment of CPSU and preparation of certain reports], S7215, University of Alaska, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Biology and Resource Management Unit, Final Report on the Establishment and First Year's Activities of Alaska Cooperative Park Studies Unit (Contract 4-9000-3-0041) (Fairbanks: University of Alaska, 1974) and Final Report on Calendar Year 1978 (Fairbanks: University of Alaska, 1979); David Libbey, "The Cooperative Park Studies. Its birth, death and distribution," undated MS [1983-84], typescript in Brown Files, ARO.

40. Contract 9000-3-0041, August 2, 1972, enclosure in Chase to Rae, August 28, 1972; Final Report on the Establishment and First Year's Activities of the Alaska Cooperative Park Studies Unit, p. 1; Alaska Studies, National Park Service, Publications Conference Papers, Reports and Thesis, undated MS, Brown Files, ARO.

41. "Cooperative Research Unit (Zorro Bradley's operation at Fairbanks), in "Background," May 10, 1975, File 27-ANCSA, Park Files, Kenai Fjords National Park, Seward, Alaska; Zorro Bradley to Dr. Harvey J. Carlson, December 11, 1973, Swem Correspondence, July-December 1973, HFC. "During the past two years," an obviously angry Bradley wrote, "there has been very little evidence of NPS support for this activity."

42. Proposed regulations regarding Native land selections published in 1973 indicated that 14(h) selections could also be made on lands withdrawn under sections 17-d-2. By 1975, however, questions had been raised within the Interior Department whether d-2 lands included in Secretary Morton's legislative proposals were available for selection. Despite eloquent appeals from people like Zorro Bradley—who wrote that exclusion of d-2 lands seemed "legally indefensible and morally reprehensible"—the department took the position that d-2 lands included in Secretary Morton's 1973 proposals were not available for cemetary and historic site selection. It did indicate, however, that "a withdrawal made pursuant to section 17(d)(1) of the Act which is not part of the Secretary's recommendation to Congress of December 18, 1973, on the four national systems shall not preclude a withdrawal pursuant to section 14(a) of the Act." Federal Register, Vol. 38 Part 2 (March 9, 1973), p. 6510; Zorro Bradley to Assistant Director, Park Historic Preservation, September 8, 1975, L-30 - Native Claims Regulations, Box 9, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Bradley to Assistant Director, Park Historic Preservation, Sept. 30, 1975 [encloses an Analysis of the Legislative Development and Intent Behind Sections 14(h)(1) and 17(d)(2) of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," that was primarily the work of Dr. Gary Stein], 14(h) Files, ARO; Deputy Solicitor to Secretary of the Interior, November 5, 1975, Cultural Resources, Katmai Keyman Files, Box 37, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Federal Register Vol. 40 (December 9, 1975), p. 57365 and Vol. 41 (April 7, 1976), p. 14737.

43. For example, William Schneider indicated that for the Inupiat, historic sites are not only the tangible physical remains left after settlement and use, but also included the "natural features that first attracted settlement activities and that today make the sites desirable for hunting, fishing, and trapping." "Activities and Opportunities for Cultural Anthropologists," CRM Bulletin, III, (September 1979), p. 5.

44. Roger C.B. Morton to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Director, National Park Service, and Director, Bureau of Land Management, December 12, 1974, H3405-14(h), Selections Box 8, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Federal Register, vol. 4 (April 7, 1976), pp. 14734-14740; Theodor Swem to Gary Everhardt, January 16, 1976, Alaska Status Reports, Swem Papers; Zorro Bradley to State Director, October 19, 1977, H32 Historic and Cemetery Sites, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Grauman, "The ANCSA 14(h)(1) Program," p. 4. There is considerable evidence indicating that things did not go smoothly between the agencies. Roger Contor, memo to Files, October 2, 1978, Box 2, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, UDSI.

45. Al Henson to Theodore Swem, Jan. 6, 1975 [December 1974 Monthly Report], A-58, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO.

46. Earl E. Chase to A.B. Froi, June 23, 1975, 14(h) Files, ARO. The amount of the original contract was $99,000.

47. Zorro Bradley to State Director, October 18, 1977, H32 - Historic and Cemetery Sites, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Grauman, "The ANCSA 14(h)(1) Program," p. 4.

48. Bradley to State Director, October 19, 1977. In addition Bradley indicated that over 1,100 of the sites would be nominated to the National Register of Historic Places. Nominations would be submitted by the Corporations, but at their request, the 14(h) staff would prepare the necessary documentation.

49. Bradley to State Director, October 19, 1977; Grauman, "The ANCSA 14(h) Program," pp. 4-5; Wendy H. Arundel - "Report on Current Research," May 22, 1980, Box 1, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

50. John Bligh to John Cook, March 24, 1982, 14(h) Files, ARO; Ira J. Hutchinson to Assistant Secretary, FWP, January 13, 1982, Ibid.; John Cook to Area Director, BIA, February 23, 1983; Ibid; J. Craig Potter [Acting Assistant Secretary, FWP] to Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs, April 19, 1983, Ibid. Talk of having HCRS take over the Service's role surfaced in 1979. Nothing came of it, however. Paul C. Pritchard to Director, HCRS, August 6, 1979, HCRS Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

51 . Al Henson to Theodor Swem, January 6, 1975, A-58, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Swem to Gary Everhardt, January 16, 1976, Alaska Status reports, Swem Papers.

52. Bradley to State Director, October 19, 1977. Andrews' and Stein's Reports were published as Report on the Cultural Resources of Doyon Region: Central Alaska (1977) and Report on the Cultural Resources of the Aleut Region (1977).

53. USDI, APG, Final Environmental Statement, Proposed Yukon-Charley National Rivers, Alaska (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1974), pp. 13-14; William Brown, Richard Caulfield and Robert Howell, "Plan Up-date - Revision Yukon-Charley National Rivers Proposal," undated MS [1976], Denali Keyman Files, Box 30, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Brown, "Yukon-Charley: Rivers to Yesteryear," in Wilderness Parklands in Alaska, p. 64. Apparently, the earlier statements regarding the potential for float trips on the Kandik and Nation Rivers were based on a report of a BOR reconnaissance survey made in 1972-73 (see pp. 127-28). Residents of the area disagreed with those recommendations.

54. Not all agreed that Alaska was all that different as to require new management approaches. This continues to be the subject of some debate within the Service today.

55. William E. Brown, This Last Treasure: Alaska National Parklands (Anchorage: Alaska Natural History Association, 1982), p. 6; John Kauffmann, in Position Papers and Reflections on GAAR by Keyman John Kauffmann, compiled from files by Bill Brown; Brown, Caulfield, and Howel, "Plan update - Revision Yukon-Charley National Rivers," [1976]; "Statement for Management Proposed Gates of the Arctic Wilderness National Park, Alaska," November 1977, GAAR Keyman Files, Box 32, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle.

56. This shift away from recreational development was certainly not confined to Alaska, but reflected a shift in NPS approaches elsewhere. The movement toward preservation was however, considerably more pronounced in Alaska.

57. Activity Reports No. 19 and 22, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, July 14 and November 2, 1977, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Richard J. Myshak to Directors, NPS, BOR, FWS, February 27, 1978, Box 12, Ibid.; [Roger] Contor, Discussion Paper - Future Administration Plans for Alaska, March 9, 1978, Boyle, Ibid.; John Kauffman to Area Director, April 6, 1978, GAAR Keyman Files, Box 35, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Implementation Tasks for New National Park Units in Alaska, May 4, 1978, Alaska Background, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Ira J . Hutchison to Regional Director, Pacific Northwest, et al., September 21, 1978, Box 40, Ibid.; Interview of William E. Brown, November 11, 1983.

A considerable amount of the Department of the Interior's effort was directed toward establishing some form of cooperative planning and management. Along these lines, Fish and Wildlife and Park Service staffs worked during 1978 and 1979 to develop an "Alaska Management Guide," described by one participant as a holistic approach to planning and management. The effort came to naught, however, when other assistant secretaries complained that the "covering was too broad and its implications were so comprehensive." Although the Park Service had been involved in cooperative planning efforts at Mount McKinley as early as 1973 and recognized, with their colleagues in the Fish and Wildlife Service, the importance of moving ahead to some coordinated fashion, they too objected to the guide as an effort to centralize decision-making power in an Interior Department Alaska office. John Reynolds to Ted Swem, May 25, 1973, Denali Keyman Files, Box 33, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Department of the Interior, "Cooperative Planning and Management in Alaska," November 28, 1979, A-40 - Alaska Cooperative Planning Group, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Richard Myshak to Undersecretary, September 5, 1973, Box 31, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Robert Herbst to Directors, NPS, FWS, BOR, January 15, 1979; Box 17, Ibid.; Fish and Wildlife and Parks, Alaska Management Guide, draft, June 25, 1979, Ibid.; Robert Herbst to Asst. Secy-LW, et al., July 25, 1979, Ibid.; Guy Martin to Robert Herbst, April 11, 1978, L204 E Management, Box 17, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Interview of Hugh Mueller (October 3, 1983), Roger Contor (November 2, 1983), John Cook (January 26, 1984), and Bill Reffalt (December 9, 1983).

58. G. Bryan Harry to Regional Director, PNW, June 21, 1977, A6435 - Organization, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Activity Report, Assistant to the Director for Alaska, September 27, 1977, Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Interview of Bill Brown, November 11, 1983. Henson's primary job was to assist service center staff in preparing for the anticipated special design and planning work load. However, in the two years before retiring he continued to be active in the Service's Alaska affairs, advising the director, participating in writing the supplemental environmental impact statements, preparing information for Department of Interior testimony at legislative hearings, and assisting in drafting national monument proclamations.

59. Task Force Leaders - FWS, BOR and NPS to Alaska Planning Group, December 4, 1974, L3014d, Permits, Surface d-2, Box 9, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Memorandum of Understanding Between the Bureau of Land Management and Department of Agriculture, United States Forest Service, and the Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Regarding Interim Management of Four Systems Areas under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, July 30, 1975, Swem Correspondence, 1/75-12/76, HFC; Curt McVee to DM's, August 5, 1975, 2650-03, Authority and Directives - ANCSA FY '76, BLM Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Keith Trexler to Thomas Dean, October 25, 1974, L30146 - Permits, Box 9, Alaska Task Force Files, RG 79, FARC, Seattle; Carl D. Johnson to Al Henson, August 25, 1975; Ibid.; Roy Sanborn to M. Thomas Dean, December 12, 1975, Ibid.; Al Henson to M. Thomas Dean, June 27, 1974, Ibid; Ralph Root to Al Henson, July 24, 1975, L30236, Oil Wells - Kurupa, Box 12, Ibid.

60. William J. Whalen to Robert Herbst, November 9, 1978, doc. no. 003040, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

61. James A. Joseph [for Cecil Andrus] to Mike Gravel, December 3, 1979, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Secretary to James T. Mcintyre, Jr., January 2, 1979 [unsigned draft], Ibid.; NPS Alaska Framework - Proposed Level of Funding and Activity for Alaska under Executive Action, November 6, 1978, Planning, Box 3, ARO Files, Old Federal Building Warehouse, ARO. The Fish and Wildlife Service, on the other hand, assigned fourteen people to assist in the administration, planning, and enforcement in the monuments under its control.

62. Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984; Interview of William E. Brown, November 11, 1984; Douglas Warnock, "Recollections of a First Trip to Eagle, Alaska," 1983; Temple A. Reynolds to Regional Director, PNW, February 28, 1979 [Critique of "Great Denali Trespass"], W3415, Great Denali Trespass, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Interview of Dave Mihalic by Frank Williss, May 17, 1983. In addition members of regional special events team flew to Seattle, where they waited should additional help be needed. These special events teams are groups of rangers within a region who are trained as a unit with an assigned leader and who are able to respond to any law-enforcement problem.

63. William J. Whalen to Assistant Secretary, FWP [Robert Herbst], November 9, 1979, doc. no. 003040, ANILCA Papers, USDI. Whalen wrote that a major conflict with monument regulations would come from sport hunting interests. If Congress acted to establish preserves, the problem would not exist.

64. Interview of John Cook, October 27, 1983 and January 26, 1984; Anchorage Daily News, October 21, 1979 [Interview of NPS Director William J. Whalen], ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; W.T. Tanner to Alaska Area Director, October 18, 1979 [Operational Outline, Alaska Detail, June Through September 1979], W-34, Law Enforcement, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO. Tanner had recently spent three years in the Service's WASO office. For two of those years he was agency representative to the Federal Law Enforcement Center, and during the third year was staff Park Ranger in the Division of Ranger Activities.

65. W.T. Tanner to Alaska Area Director, October 18, 1979, and Rick Smith to John Cook, October 18, 1979, W-34, Law Enforcement, ARO Central Files, Inactive, ARO; Enforcement Plan for the 1979 Sport Hunting Season in Alaska, undated MS [June 1979], Box 19, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Suggested Public Affairs Program for the National Park Service Sport Hunting Plan - July-August 1979, undated MS [1979], Ibid.; Douglas Warnock to Assistant to the Secretary for Alaska, September 10, 1979, Ibid.; Robert Herbst to Ted Stevens, August 20, 1979, Ibid.

66. Funds on monuments, September 11, 1979, Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; James A. Joseph for Cecil Andrus to Mike Gravel, December 3, 1979, Ibid.; Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984; Interview of Bill Tanner, July 20, 1983. Home parks were given funds to hire seasonals to fill the slots of those detailed. Because the rangers in the 1978 task force came largely from high-visibility positions in the park, this did not prove satisfactory, and was one reason for change in personnel detailed in the summer of 1980.

67. Tanner to Cook, October 18, 1979; Rick Smith to Cook, October 18, 1979; Enforcement Plan for the 1979 Sport Hunting Season in Alaska, [June 1979], Box 18, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI.

68. Tanner to Cook, October 18, 1979; Interview of Stuart Coleman by Frank Williss, January 26, 1984; Interview of Don Utterback by Frank Williss, January 26, 1984; Interview of Dave Mihalic, May 17, 1983; Interview of Mack Shaver by Frank Williss, November 11, 1983. The 1979 Task Force reported directly to the Area Director. In 1980, the task force became a part of the on-going regional operations division.

69. Tanner to Cook, October 18, 1979; Entry for August 21, 1979, Wrangell-St. Elias N.M. Record, Park Files, Wrangell-St. Elias National Park/Preserve. In addition the three Rangers assigned to Wrangell-St. Elias spent several short periods at Eagle, Circle and the Charley River in Yukon-Charley.

70. Interviews of John Cook (Jan. 26, 1984), Dave Mihalic (May 17, 1983), Stuart Coleman (Jan. 26, 1984), Don Utterback (Jan. 26, 1984), Mack Shaver, and Larry Van Slyke (November 2, 1983); J.W. Tanner to Alaska Area Director; Dave Mihalic to John Cook, October 9, 1979, Walt Dabney to Cook, December 10, 1979, WaIt Gale to Cook, October 18, 1979, Don Sholly to Cook, October 14, 1979, Roger Rudolph to Cook, October 9, 1979 [Final Reports of Visiting Task Force], Box A, ARO Files, Old Federal Building Warehouse, ARO. At Seward, for example, Mary J. Karracker became deeply involved in the community affairs—playing on a local softball team, and serving with a voluntary ambulance crew.

71. Interview of Dave Mihalic, May 17, 1983; Interview of Bill Tanner, July 20, 1983; Tanner to Cook, October 18, 1979; Copper Valley Views, August 8 and 22, 1979, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Interview of Stuart Coleman, January 26, 1984. An embarrassed staff did make an appointment with another dentist for Coleman. In no condition to take chances, Coleman did not indicate that he worked for the National Park Service the next time.

72. Interview of Dave Mihalic (May 17, 1983), Bill Tanner (July 20, 1983), John Cook (January 26, 1984), and Don Utterback (January 26, 1984); Tanner to Cook, October 18, 1979; Dave Mihalic to John Cook, October 9, 1979, Box A, Old Federal Building Warehouse, ARO; Walt Dabney to Cook, Ibid.; Walt Gale to Cook, October 18, 1979, Ibid.; Ibid.; Don Sholly to Cook, Roger Rudolph to Cook, Ibid; Weekly Activity Report, NPS, September 10-14, 1979; Case Incident Report, October 22, 1979, Case Incident Reports, 1979-81, Law Enforcement File, Park Files, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve. On October 22, after the task force rangers had returned to their permanent assignments, vandals inflicted approximately $2000 dollars damage on an NPS plane in Bettles.

73. While it would be too much to say that violence brought about a reversal in attitudes toward the monuments or NPS employees, it did convince many Alaskans that protests over the monument proclamations had gone too far. Even in the Wrangell area, which was a hotbed of opposition, signs warning rangers to stay away came down after the burning of the NPS plane. Tanner to Cook, October 18, 1979. Telephone discussion with William E. Brown, November 15, 1984.

74. Tanner to Cook, October 18, 1979; Douglas G. Warnock to Assistant to the Secretary for Alaska, September 10, 1979, Ranger Task Force, Box 19, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI. The Rangers at Wrangell-St. Elias brought the body of a climber down from Mt. Sanford, an act that won considerable goodwill.

75. Anchorage Daily News, September 18, 1979, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; Interviews of Bill Tanner (July 20, 1983), John Cook (January 26, 1984), Don Utterback (January 26, 1984), and Dave Mihalic (May 17, 1983). The charge of excessive force came out of an investigation of possible illegal hunting in Gates of the Arctic. Citizens who took part in a camp-in in Wrangell-Saint Elias (Camp Tradition) claimed that rangers looked the other way to avoid issuing citations. Evidence does not substantiate either claim.

76. The 1980 Ranger Task Force differed from that in 1979 in that the fifteen rangers were generally lower-graded and generally younger, and had fewer years' experience. Although there were instances of violence (a NPS plane at Bettles was again vandalized) the 1980 group met less hostility and certainly less publicity. Ranger II Task Force to Sourdoughs of Yesteryear, July and August 1980, Secretary's files, Office of Associate Regional Director, Operations, ARO; Interviews with Bill Tanner (July 20, 1983), John Cook (January 26, 1983), and Don Utterback, (January 26, 1983).

Dave Mihalic, Mack Shaver, and Mike Tollefson, for example, all became superintendents. Mihalic went to Yukon Charley Rivers National Preserve, Shaver became superintendent of the northwest areas, and Tollefson is superintendent of Glacier Bay.

1. With the addition of the d-2 lands, the Park System in Alaska totalled 51,256,000 acres. This amounted to just over sixty-three percent of the National Park System. By 1983, NPS employees in Alaska would total less than two percent of the number of employees in the National Park Service. Everhart, The National Park Service (1982), p. 198; Interview of Roger Contor, November 2, 1983.

2. Cecil D. Andrus to Solicitor, et. al., December 2, 1980 [especially attachments], NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Required Studies, Reports, and Deadlines in Alaska Lands Legislation (As Passed by Senate on August 19, 1980), undated MS, Box 11, Ibid.; Deputy Assistant Secretary - Indian Affairs to Undersecretary, October 23, 1980, doc. no. 001405, ANILCA Papers, USDI; USDI, NPS Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Kantishna Hills/Dunkle Mine Study and Report Denali National Park and Preserve (Denver: NPS, 1984); Margaret McKeown to Solicitor, et. al., December 31, 1980 [Emergency Interim Regulations under Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act], Box 23, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; Robert Herbst to Assistant Secretary - Policy, Budget, and Administration, January 2, 1981, Ibid.; "National Park System in Alaska, Public Uses," Federal Register, Vol. 46, no. 116, part 3, June 17, 1981, pp. 31836-863. To date general management plans have been completed for Kenai Fjords, Lake Clark, and Glacier Bay. All others are on review.

The work of the Service was further complicated in 1981 when the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service was abolished, and that agency's functions transferred to the National Park Service.

3. Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984; Cecil D. Andrus to Solicitor, et. al., December 2, 1980. Secretary Andrus ordered the establishment of National Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service regional offices in his December 2, 1980 implementation directive.

4. 'House of Representative Committee Report, June 26, 1980," Belous Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; U.S., Congress, House, Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations, Hearings Before a Subcommittee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 96th Cong., 2d sess., 1980, part II, pp. 548-51, 783-79; U.S., Congress, Senate, Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations, Hearings before the Committee on Appropriations on H.R. 7724, 96th Cong., 2d Sess., Part 3, pp. 501-503; Anchorage Times, February 28, 1980, Fairbanks Daily News-Miner, May 17, 1980, and Ketchikan Daily News, March 6, 1980, Special Collections Division, DPL; Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984. Congressional anger over President Carter's use of the Antiquities Act seems to have been the primary reason for refusing to grant the Service's full request. Some Congressmen did argue, moreover, that a full appropriation would place a stamp of approval on the President's action when it was under challenge in the courts. The Service may have hurt its own cause when it proposed the construction of eleven 700-square-foot employee housing units at Bettles and Kotzebue at the cost of $300,000 each. That price, which included installation of utility systems, design and project supervision, site development, and construction of access roads, does not seem unreasonable, and was a reflection of the cost of doing business in Alaska. Nor was it out of line with costs of similar housing constructed by private interests and other agencies in rural Alaska. In retrospect, however, the request was unfortunately timed and made reduction of the funds requested to manage the new areas much easier to accomplish.

5. Interview of Cook, October 27, 1983; Regional Director's Annual Report—1982, Alaska Region, ARO Central Files, ARO. In addition, the Regional Office did begin the process of programming this, and future historical studies of the new parklands.

6. NPS, "Summary of New Alaska Area Requirements," September 26, 1980, attachment to Robert Herbst to Secretary [Andrus], September 30, 1980 [draft], Box 40, NPS WASO Files, ANILCA Papers, USDI; "House Appropriations Committee Report," June 6, 1980, Belous Files, Ibid. In September 1980, the Park Service indicated that implementation of ANILCA would require sixty-nine positions in the field areas, and an additional thirty-eight in Anchorage. FY 1981 funds provided for thirty positions in the field areas and six more in mining and mineral management in the Anchorage office.

7. Interviews of John Cook (January 24, 1984), Chuck Budge (July 29, 1983), and Paul Haertel (November 2, 1983). Budge was also acting superintendent of Denali National Monument and Haertel served as chief of operations in the Anchorage area office.

8. Interviews of John Cook (January 26, 1984), and Mack Shaver (November 4, 1983).

>9. Vacancy Announcement - Park Managers--Kenai Fjords, Bering Land Bridge, Gates of the Arctic, and Yukon Charley, December 16. Park Files, Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve; Interview of John Cook, January 24, 1984). In addition to Budge, Haertel, and Shaver, Regional Director Cook selected Dick Ring as superintendent at Gates of the Arctic, Dave Mihalic at Yukon-Charley, Dave Moore at Kenai Fjords, and Larry Rose at Bering Land Bridge.

10. Interview of Dave Moore by Frank Williss, July 22, 1983. Moore would not be able to put people into the field until the 1983 season.

11. C. Mack Shaver to Regional Director, Alaska Region, March 31, 1983 [Superintendent's Annual Report, 1981 and 1982], ARO Central Files, ARO; Interview of Mack Shaver, November 4, 1983.

The Park Service had worked for inclusion of a local-hire provision in the Alaska Lands bill since 1972. The provision had been deleted from the Secretary Morton proposal at the request of the OMB. Section 1308 of ANILCA includes a provision providing for hiring of individuals who had "lived or worked in or near a conservation system unit, has special knowledge or expertise concerning the natural or cultural resources of such a unit and the management thereof."

12. Interview of Dave Mihalic, May 17, 1983. As it turned out, use of this telephone for park business at Yukon-Charley National Rivers provided for a real example of open government. In a complex link, phone calls went by radio from the store to a nearby earth station three miles away for transmission outside. It was possible, as a result, to monitor both incoming and outgoing calls. The situation no longer exists.

13. Interview of Dick Ring by Frank Williss, July 13, 1983; "Significant Organizational Events, 1982 - Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve," April 12, 1983, ARO Central Files, ARO; Interviews of Chuck Budge (July 29, 1983) and Bill Paleck (July 27, 1983); Budge to Regional Director, Alaska Region, March 30, 1983, ARO Central Files, ARO.

Fairbanks headquarters of Gates of the Arctic was not established until August. At first, it was located in offices of the Cooperative Park Studies Unit at the University of Alaska. Headquarters of Wrangell-Saint Elias was officially in a rented room at the library. In actuality, according to Budge, it was in the cabs of two four-wheel drive trucks assigned Budge and Chief Ranger Bill Paleck.

14. For a particularly perceptive analysis of the conflicting demands that National Park Service managers in Alaska will face, see C. Mack Shaver, "Traditional National Park Values and Living Cultural Parks: Seemingly Conflicting Management Demands Coexisting in Alaska's New National Parklands, 1984, typescript in ARO. This paper was presented by Mr. Shaver at the First World Conference on Cultural Parks held at Mesa Verde National Park, September 16-21, 1984.

15. For example, USDI, NPS, Statement for Management, Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park (Anchorage: NPS, 1983); USDI, NPS, "Draft Statement for Management, Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve," 1982; USDI, NPS, "Draft Statement for Management, Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve," April 8, 1983.

16. By NPS policy neither the superintendent nor regional director is authorized to take any action which will have a lasting effect on the resources until a general management plan is approved.

17. As indicated Chuck Budge, Paul Haertel, and Mack Shaver had served as rangers-in-charge of their respective areas since 1979 and 1980. Dave Mihalic had visited Yukon-Charley briefly as a member of the 1979 ranger task force, and earlier had been involved in interim management of the d-2 lands while employed at the Bureau of Land Management. Additionally, employment of several Alaska residents as seasonal staff brought added expertise to the staffs of the new areas.

Nevertheless, the majority of personnel in the new parks had little experience in Alaska, and had not been a part of the pre-ANILCA planning process. Earlier the keymen had been considered to be prime candidates for the positions of new area managers. Most, however, had left, and those who remained—Bill Brown and Bob Belous—were assigned to the Anchorage Office. Brown was chief of cultural resources and Belous was special assistant to the regional director.

18. C. Mack Shaver to Regional Director, Alaska, March 31, 1983, ARO Central Files, ARO. It must be made clear that the people contacted were visitors to Kotzebue and should not be considered as park visitors.

19. Interview of Dick Ring, July 13, 1983.

20. Park Service officials recognized that a failing of the ranger task forces that manned the national monuments in 1979 and 1980 was that the people were in the field only during the summer. Before 1980, Ray Bane, who lived in Bettles, was the only Park Service employee permanently in the field in any of the new areas.

21. Kotzebue and Nome, for example, are reached only by boat (in the summer) and airplane. Gates of the Arctic is some 200 miles north of Fairbanks and is reached only by air, although the Dalton Highway does run along the eastern boundary. Eagle (headquarters for Yukon Charley Rivers National Preserve) can be reached by what is euphemistically called the Taylor Highway, a 161-mile-long narrow, winding gravel road that is open from April to mid-October. During the winter Eagle is accessible only by airplane.

22. Dave Mihalic, "But What's it Really Like?" Newsletter of the Association of National Park Rangers, VII (Spring, 1984), pp. 8-9; U.S., Congress, House, Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1982, Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, 97th Cong., 1st Sess., 1981, pp. 805-806; Interview of John Cook, January 26, 1984. Federal employees in Alaska do receive a twenty-five percent cost of living adjustment.

23. Interviews of Jim Hannah (July 29, 1983), Bill Paleck (July 27, 1983), Chuck Budge (July 29, 1983), Dave Mihalic (May 17, 1983), Bryan Pittman (July 11, 1983), Mack Shaver (November 4, 1983), and John Cook (January 26, 1984); G. Mack Shaver to Regional Director, March 31, 1983, ARO Central Files, ARO.

Housing is not provided for by the Park Service. Mack Shaver reported that employees in Kotzebue spent five months finding permanent housing. The expense and difficulty in finding housing in the remote areas of Alaska could prove to be a real problem for the Park Service in the future. It could become a barrier to the movement of Service personnel in and out of Alaska, causing difficulties in managing the Alaska parks and creating, in effect, a separate Alaska National Park Service.

24. Interview of Jim Hannah, July 29, 1983. Hannah had been a member of the 1980 ranger task force.

25. "Task Directive for meeting Alaska Planning Needs, 1981-1985," >May 18, 1981, Elizabeth Janes Files, Branch of Planning, Western Team (TWE), Denver Service Center (DSC); G. Ray Arnett to Directors, NPS and FWS, June 20, 1983, ARO Central Files, ARO.

In 1981, The Alaska Regional Office gave key responsibility for general management planning in Alaska to the Denver Service Center. In 1983, that responsibility was transferred back to Alaska. Team Captains for remaining plans (Gates of the Arctic, Bering Land Bridge, Noatak, Kobuk Valley, and Cape Krusenstern) were hired and duty-stationed in Alaska.

26. "General Management Plan Program," undated MS [1984], Janes Files, DSC. It was estimated that the total cost of producing general management plans for the Alaska areas would be $1,396,972. The 1982 funds represented forty percent of the service-wide general management planning funds.

27. Summary Schedule--Status Report, Region: Alaska, FY 1982, undated MS [1982] Janes Files, DSC.

28. "Task Directive for meeting Alaska Planning Needs, 1981-1985," Janes Files, DSC. An environmental assessment is a brief public document used by the Federal agency proposing an undertaking that provides sufficient information and analysis to make a determination whether to prepare an environmental impact statement or a finding of no significant impact. This document also provides compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act when a longer and more detailed environmental impact statement is not required.

29. Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, Final Report of the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska: Some Guidelines for Deciding Alaska's Future (Anchorage: JFSLUPC, 1979), foreword.

30. See, for example, "Regulations are the next d-2 fight!" Anchorage Daily News, December 23, 1981, ARO Clipping Files, Special Collections Division, DPL; "Andrus: d-2 being 'dismantled,"' Anchorage Times, April 29, 1982, Ibid.; "Natives find much wrong with Lands Act," Ibid.; "'We're redeeming Lands Act promises,' Horn says," Wildlife Refuges: What Future for Alaska? Proceedings of the National Audubon Society Alaska Regional Conference, May 7-10, 1981, (Anchorage: National Audubon Society Alaska Regional Office], 1982); Robert Cahn, The National Parks, The People, The Parks, The Politics," Sierra, LXVIII (May-June, 1983), pp. 47-55; Celia Hunter, "This Land is Our Land," Alaska: Magazine of Life on the Last Frontier, L (November 1984), pp. 15, 61; Michele Strutin, "Alaska Land Scramble," National Parks (May/June 1982), p. 29; Edgar Wayburn, "The Alaska Lands Act. The beginning of What?" Sierra LXVII (September-October 1982), pp. 42-44; Wayburn, "Hunters Take Aim at Alaska's National Parks S. 49 and H.R. 1493," Sierra, LXVIII (May-June, 1983), pp. 17-18.

31. Roderick M. Nash, "Comments on the Draft Statement of Management for Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve with Special Emphasis on the problem of Air Access and Wilderness Values," September 10, 1982, Typescript in Brown Files, ARO.