Pipe Spring Cultures at a Crossroads An Administrative History of Pipe Spring National Monument

Introduction

As the 1960s progressed, more and more emphasis was placed on re-creating the "historic scene" at Pipe Spring National Monument. [1885] This had long been of some concern to management, but the restoration and maintenance needs of the historic buildings had always taken precedence. Now that Mission 66 programs and funding had taken care of the immediate needs of the historic buildings, attention turned to their setting. In addition, monument staff put into effect some earlier suggestions made by interpretive specialists to improve the interpretive program and came up with ideas of their own. The seeds for developing the monument into a "living history ranch" were planted during this period, as evidenced by the gradual changes in exhibits and the increasing use of demonstrations during guided tours. It would not be until 1968, however - when government-sponsored youth training and employment programs became available - that the supply of personnel would even begin to approach the demands of a full-fledged living history program. From the monument's perspective, the long-awaited completion of State Highway 389 in May 1967 was probably the most important event of the decade, not only for the monument but also for neighboring communities.

Events transpiring at the highest level of government had eventual repercussions at Pipe Spring National Monument. President John F. Kennedy's assassination on November 22, 1963, left the country in a state of shock. Vice-president Lyndon B. Johnson became president and remained in office until 1968, when Richard M. Nixon won the White House. National political and social turmoil over the war in Viet Nam and civil rights issues during the 1960s did not touch the remote site of Pipe Spring National Monument, but President's Johnson's "War on Poverty" most certainly did. Announced in his State of the Union Address on January 8, 1964, Johnson's War on Poverty called for legislation that would attack the multiple causes of poverty: illiteracy, unemployment, and inadequate public services. Under the Economic Opportunity Act of August 30, 1964, $947.7 million was authorized for 10 separate programs overseen by the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), including Job Corps, Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), and work-training programs, such as the Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC), Youth Conservation Corps (YCC), and Operation Mainstream. These programs would be for Pipe Spring National Monument what the CCC camp had been, only with far fewer administrative headaches. Additional "warm bodies" working at Pipe Spring enabled the monument to carry out a number of programs and projects that had been on its wish list for many years. During this period, the Zion Natural History Association also offered generous financial support to help the monument reach a number of worthy goals related to its living history program and native grass restoration project.

Beginning about 1964, there were many changes in Park Service management personnel, from the monument level to the Washington office. Management Assistant Hugh H. Bozarth was hired to oversee Pipe Spring National Monument in October 1963. He was the first manager from Park Service ranks to take charge of the monument since its establishment in 1923. Bozarth remained there until September 1967. James M. ("Jim") Harter served as acting management assistant from Bozarth's departure until April 1968. Supervisory Historian Raymond J. Geerdes succeeded Harter and remained at Pipe Spring until February 1971. In August 1965 Zion National Park's Superintendent Francis R. Oberhansley retired; Warren F. Hamilton succeeded him. Hamilton left Zion in late April 1968, succeeded by Karl T. Gilbert (1968-1969) and Oscar T. Dick (1969). From April 6, 1969, to September 18, 1971, Karl T. Gilbert was general superintendent of the newly established Southern Utah Group (SOUG) in Cedar City, Utah, which administered Bryce Canyon, Zion, and Capitol Reef national parks, and Cedar Breaks and Pipe Spring national monuments. (SOUG was later abolished on July 8, 1972.) Robert I. Kerr was made superintendent of Zion in 1970. At the Southwest Regional Office, Regional Director Daniel B. Beard succeeded Thomas J. Allen on August 6, 1963, and served until September 9, 1967. Frank F. Kowski succeeded him at that time. In Washington, D.C., Director Conrad Wirth left his position in January 1964 and was succeeded by George B. Hartzog, Jr. The longest continuous presence during the decade was Secretary of the Interior Stewart L. Udall who served in his position from January 21, 1961, to January 20, 1969. (Udall had direct family ties to Pipe Spring National Monument. His grandmother, Eliza Luella Stewart, was the Deseret Telegraph Office's first telegraph operator at Pipe Spring during the early 1870s.) On January 21, 1969, Walter J. Hickel, who served only until November 25, 1970, succeeded Udall.

The federal government's efforts to terminate its obligations to Indian tribes in the 1950s (mentioned in the introduction of Part VIII) led to a growing backlash in the 1960s. Coinciding with a new Democratic administration that professed concern about the plight of the poor, federal aid to tribes greatly expanded during this period and reservation governments were made eligible as sponsoring agencies for numerous federal economic opportunities. In the late 1960s, the Department of the Interior received an appropriation of $1 million to carry out an Indian assistance program. [1886] Half of this amount was allocated for the Southwest Region. In addition, the Paiute received $1 million as a result of the aboriginal land settlement. The money enabled the Kaibab Paiute Tribe to pursue its desire to develop a tourism complex, the primary objective being to create jobs for its members. [1887] All at once the monument and regional office staff were catapulted into an unprecedented working relationship with the Tribe. In response to the Tribe's planned developments, the Park Service rallied to reduce the visual impact of developments on the "historic scene" while protecting the tri-partite water agreement of 1933. In anticipation that the Tribe might challenge this agreement, a great deal of historical research was conducted in 1969 to bolster the Park Service's case for legal ownership of the land and springs. Talk of an interdepartmental land exchange was also thrown into the mix, reviving the possibility of expanding the monument's boundaries.

The Indian occupation of Alcatraz Island on November 20, 1969, according to one historical reference, "signaled the rise of Indian activism." [1888] It could be argued that the 1953 Termination Resolution and its effects led to this increase in activism, however, at least laying the foundation for Indian activism during the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s. The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1970, soon emerged as the most militant voice for radical change in federal-Indian relations, setting the stage for future political confrontations in the early 1970s. By the end of the decade, Park Service officials administering park units adjacent to reservations could not ignore the increasing economic and political power of Indians. Amidst a backdrop of an increasingly tense environment in many parts of the country, the cooperative efforts and relatively smooth working relationships between the Kaibab Paiute, Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and Pipe Spring National Monument in the late 1960s are all the more noteworthy. Both the Indians and the Park Service stood to benefit from maintaining harmony, and — at least at Pipe Spring — both succeeded in doing so.

Monument Administration

The Bozarth Period

There were no immediate or drastic changes effected by Management Assistant Bozarth's arrival at the monument in the fall of 1963. Bozarth did not keep a daily journal as Leonard Heaton had, so the primary sources for this period are monthly reports Bozarth and the park historian filed, as well as Zion staff meeting minutes, oral histories, and correspondence. [1889] (The superintendents' monthly narrative reports were discontinued as of June 30, 1967, by directive. Thereafter each site maintained a log of significant events and sent a monthly report to the regional director.) Park Historian Bob Olsen continued providing tours, maintaining museum collection records, and performing other curatorial duties. He also conducted historical research. In addition to his management responsibilities, Bozarth conducted tours on Olsen's days off and at other times, as visitation required. Bozarth estimated during the 1965 summer season that giving tours occupied half his time. There was an observable increase in activity over previous years in the area of public outreach. Bozarth made a concerted effort to become better acquainted with the local communities by presenting talks and slide programs to service groups in the surrounding region. Olsen did many off-site programs as well, usually at schools (see "Interpretation" section).

Gradual improvements to the Hurricane-Fredonia road (State Highway 389) both east and west of the monument quickly led to other advances in nearby communities. In April 1964 Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater notified Moccasin residents that a post office rural station would be established in Moccasin on May 16, 1964. In August 1964 GarKane Power Company added new lines to the system supplying Colorado City (formerly Short Creek), resulting in a temporary power outage at the monument from August 24 through August 28, 8:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. daily. While increased traffic brought a few more visitors to the monument, it also brought considerably more problems. (See "Area Roads" section.)

In order to convey more of the cattle ranching aspect of the fort, Bozarth and Olsen wanted to reconstruct some of the site's historic fencing. (As mentioned in Part IX, this was a project Leonard Heaton had pushed for but with no success.) In the spring of 1964, an old, 300-post stake-and-rider fence was located in the area that the owner was willing to sell for $98. But Zion officials still lacked enthusiasm for the project and had no interest in funding it. Bozarth and Olsen had one other pet project they wanted to see funded, aside from the reconstructed fence. They wanted to refurbish the telegraph office display. In September 1965 a member of a telegraph club in Altadena, California, Louise Ramsey Moreau, volunteered to help complete the Deseret Telegraph Office in the fort. Her club had already collected some antique equipment for the office. She offered to supply the layout and circuits needed as well as to suggest the types and designs of instruments appropriate for the display. Olsen requested permission from Zion officials to change the display, for $100 to purchase additional equipment, and for another $100 to purchase the old stake-and-rider fence. Regional office officials urged Carl Jepson in his role as executive secretary of the Zion Natural History Association (ZNHA) to fund both projects, pointing out these offers needed to be taken advantage of before they were withdrawn. In October 1965 the ZNHA promised to donate up to $200 to complete the Deseret Telegraph Office exhibit and to purchase the old fence; it was acquired in early 1965, treated with wood preservative, and installed below the east cabin by permanent laborer Joseph C. ("Joe") Bolander and seasonal laborer Ray Mose in June and July 1966. Olsen described the fence as "part stake-and-rider and part stockade." [1890]

110. Newly re-constructed corral, August 1966 (Pipe Spring National Monument, neg. 486).

It is uncertain what became of Moreau's offer to redo the telegraph office exhibit. In 1967 the monument was awaiting shipment of an old telegraphy key set from the Smithsonian Institute to be used in the display. In addition to improving the telegraph office exhibit, Olsen wanted to set up an authentic cheese-making display in the fort. The Church in Kanab donated a large Damrow Brothers cheese vat in October 1964, but what Olsen was really after was a Ralph's Oneida cheese vat. Olsen's efforts in 1965 included researching old methods of cheese making and interviewing Mrs. Edward Swapp of Kanab, an 80-year-old woman who had made cheese as a girl.

111. An authentic telegraph pole behind east cabin, September 1999 (Photograph by Bill Cantine, Pipe Spring National Monument).

In early 1964 Olsen researched the old Kaibab Wagon Road (which once passed by the fort) and the Deseret Telegraph Office's line along the eight-miles between Pipe Spring and Cedar Ridge. He plotted these and related sites on a USGS map. Local residents had used all the wire and some of the old telegraph posts in the 1920s for fencing, but some evidence still remained. On January 27 Olsen climbed the Vermillion Cliffs and, looking out over the plain, spotted a row of posts. On February 18 after obtaining permission from Tribal Chairman Vernon E. Jake, Bolander and Olsen retrieved three posts and two insulators from the reservation, all believed to be remnants of the original telegraph line. (There was one pole left standing on the reservation about 1/4 mile west of the monument. [1891] ) Bozarth reported in April that all telegraph poles at Pipe Spring were "now authentic." [1892] In November 1964 seven poles were treated with preservative, tarred, and set in place during 1965. [1893] Also that year, broken insulators on the standing poles were replaced with antique insulators.

On October 28, 1964, Bozarth and Olsen went to Gunlock, Utah, to attend the dedication of a monument to William Haynes Hamblin, brother of Jacob Hamblin. [1894] The Hamblin family was planning a huge family reunion at Pipe Spring for 1965 and Olsen wanted very much to solve the mystery of how Pipe Spring got its name before that time. He was unable to locate any reliable documentary sources to verify the story, however. As it turned out, plans to hold the Hamblin reunion at Pipe Spring were cancelled that year due to a death in the Hamblin family. Olsen and Bozarth breathed a sigh of relief at this news as the reunion was expected to bring 1,200 people and they couldn't see how the tiny monument (and its single comfort station) could handle them all!

Between 1964 and 1965, the monument's carbon dioxide fire extinguishers were exchanged for the dry-chemical type. The McCulloch fire pump was routinely checked to make sure it was in operating condition. The old fire hose was replaced in June 1965 with a new linen one. Monument staff attended first aid training as well as instruction on fire protection. In the mid-1960s, an attempt was made to locate a historic building fire retardant that was appropriate and could be easily applied. In June 1966 a shipment of Flamort WC fire retardant arrived at the monument and was subsequently applied to unpainted woodwork in historic buildings, including the attic of the fort.

The monument still lacked a modern water system. In March 5, 1964, recently retired Leonard Heaton, along with Zion Park Engineer Joe McCabe and Byron Hazeltine, walked the monument staking water lines in preparation for mapping. [1895] On July 15, 1965, Bill Rothschild from the Western Office, Division of Design and Construction (WODC), visited the monument for the purpose of planning the monument's water system. The following October Rothschild returned to the monument with two other WODC men and Superintendent Hamilton. Most certainly due to lack of funds, nothing was done to construct a new system during the 1960s. During his tenure at the monument, Bozarth sent biweekly culinary water samples to public health officials for testing. Sporadic reports of test results indicate samples nearly always tested pure. [1896]

No major landscape changes were made during the 1964-1968 period. Plum trees were transplanted during in January 1965 to help screen the residential and utility areas. In March 1965 an arbor was constructed for the historic grape vine which was reported "spreading through the cottonwood tree tops." [1897] In January 1967 three men from the Park Service's Western Tree Crew worked for a week cutting and pruning crowded trees and hazardous limbs on the monument. [1898] Also that month the old CCC-era drinking fountain pipe was replaced and the stonework rebuilt. The main plum orchard received a complete tree pruning in February 1969.

The lightning protection system installed on the fort in 1956 continued to be a lure to children. In August 1965 children were found climbing up the cables. Bozarth solved the problem by regrounding the cables inside the fort. (Bozarth learned a few years later that determined boys could still scale the fort walls after hours. See "Visitation" section.)

Rattlesnakes continued to wind their way to the monument during the hot and dry summer months and were occasionally found near the fort or other areas frequented by visitors. Bozarth's report for June 1965 states that two such large rattlers were "controlled to other hunting grounds." [1899] (What he means is the snakes were killed and sent to the proverbial "happy hunting grounds!") In the mid-1960s, a pair of Coopers hawks were noticed in several successive years nesting and raising a brood in the tops of the cottonwood trees south of the fort.

Extensive archeological reconnaissance work was carried out along the new right-of-way proposed for the rerouted section of State Highway 389 during 1965. (See "Area Roads" section.)

There was considerable publicity for the monument during 1965, consisting of newspaper, magazine, and even television coverage. One of the articles was by Jay Ellis Ransom entitled "Forgotten Refuge at Pipe Spring," in Trailer Travel Magazine, November 1965. The article mentioned "several unruffled ponds and swimming pools," probably to the consternation of Zion officials, for it appears that during this period public swimming was still not allowed in the meadow pond. Evidently there remained a diving board in place there, however. As in an earlier article, the campgrounds were reported to be "part of the original parade ground of the early day military post," a story that seems to have no basis in fact but appealed to the imagination of travel writers. Another romantic image wrongly put forward in this and earlier articles was that the fort was a scene of vicious, ongoing conflict with area Indians: "For five bloody years the fort was a true refuge in the wilderness for the Mormon pioneers," Ransom wrote, perpetuating the myth. He never mentions it was a Church tithing ranch. One of the drawing cards for tourists, the article pointed out, was that everything was free — the camping site, the firewood, even the fruit off the monument's trees! This part of the article at least was absolutely true. Other articles at the monument appeared in Utah, Arizona, and Nevada newspapers during the 1960s. The National Park Service celebrated its Golden (50th) Anniversary in 1966, a time monument staff took advantage of by publicizing and promoting Pipe Spring in press releases announcing the anniversary.

The monument received a new pickup truck in June 1966 and the old one was returned to Zion. Bob Olsen and family left the monument in late September 1966 (see "Personnel" section). The monument was left without a park historian for nearly six months. Bozarth and Bolander alternated their work days so someone would always be on duty at the site to provide tours and protection. During the fall of 1966, Bozarth also worked on preparing an operations manual for the monument. Relief came when, on March 12, 1967, Fredonia schoolteacher Paul Cram Heaton entered on duty as a seasonal historian. He initially worked weekends; beginning May 27 (once school ended) he worked a 40-hour week. Meanwhile, Bozarth and Bolander continued to served as fort guides until Heaton came on duty full-time, then helped guide as needed.

On January 26, 1967, Regional Director Daniel B. Beard, Assistant Regional Director George C. Miller, Superintendent Hamilton, and Park Engineer McCabe visited the monument to review on-site the location of a planned temporary visitor contact station. The structure was to be a surplus portable building from the Bureau of Reclamation in Page, Arizona. In February and again in July 1967, NPS landscape architects visited the monument to check out proposed locations for the building. It was not moved to the monument until April 1968, however.

Park Service officials planned to discontinue overnight camping at Pipe Spring as soon as the rerouted State Highway 389 was completed. Frequently, the demand for camping spaces exceeded the available number of spaces, and Zion and Pipe Spring managers expected the situation to get much worse with the opening of State Highway 389. There was simply nowhere to expand camping facilities given the monument's small size. (Large groups had often used the meadow as an overflow camping area.) Restroom facilities were inadequate to handle large crowds and there was also a concern about the damage to vegetation and impacts to the "historic scene," not to mention midnight break-ins to the fort by wall-scaling youths! Bozarth began encouraging the Kaibab Paiute to develop a camping area on the reservation as early as January 1964. Zion and Pipe Spring staff began alerting travel magazines and guidebooks in the summer of 1966 that camping was to be discontinued at the monument with the opening of the new highway in 1967. There was also some discussion between Zion officials and Bozarth during early 1967 about charging a visitor fee at the monument once the new highway was completed, but the decision was made to postpone the fee for at least another year. (No fee was charged until the early 1970s.)

On May 27, 1967, State Highway 389 was opened to the public, including the bypass road the Park Service had long pushed for. The west entrance to the monument was no longer needed. It was closed and monument access was now only from the east. A "no camping" sign was posted to advise visitors of a change in policy for the old camping area, which was now designated solely for day-use. During July the old highway through the monument was obliterated and an attempt was made to restore the road trace to natural conditions. [1900] That month the old CCC swimming pool (the meadow pond) was filled in with dirt. There were plans to plant grass over it and use the area as a group picnic area. The monument's telephone wires were also placed underground and poles removed, "no longer disturbing the historic scene," Bozarth reported. [1901] (In late 1967, however, Bozarth's temporary successor, Jim Harter, complained that the telephone lines were so noisy with static that phone calls were nearly impossible, especially at night. It was suspected the problem lay in the buried line.)

As soon as the bypass road was in good enough shape to drive on (even before the main highway was finished), Bozarth noticed a drop in visitation figures. There was some concern that the new ban on camping might result in lower visitation figures. While traffic increased along State Highway 389, no one knew how many motorists would leave it long enough to make the short detour to see the monument. (Years later, former Park Historian Jim McKown commented on the marked difference that resulted from the abandonment of the old monument road. "While I was there, it was still a way station for travelers. That aspect of it is pretty much gone," he told the author. [1902])

Park Historian Bob Olsen's departure in September 1966 and the fact that no one permanent was hired to fill in for a while delayed the preparation of a museum prospectus for the monument. Regional Curator Jean R. Swearingen visited the monument in May 1967 accompanied by Superintendent Hamilton and Chief Naturalist James W. ("Jim") Schaack. Swearingen rearranged an exhibit or two and recommended removal of some extraneous items. The fort's heating and lighting systems were discussed at that time.

She filed a report in July to Regional Director Beard that included immediate and long-term recommendations. Her cover letter stated that since the monument had no furnishing plan or interpretive prospectus her report was only a general list of suggestions. [1903] She wrote in her cover memorandum,

... I feel strongly that something should be done for this area. It should not be allowed to ride along as it has, in a state of neglected mediocrity.

This state is by no means the fault of the area personnel! In my report I refer to the 'shoddiness' of the rooms but it must be understood that this condition does not exist because of the lack of care. Management Assistant Bozarth and Caretaker Bolander have done a beautiful job with what they have at hand, which is very little. Under the conditions they are working, only so much can be done! Lack of personnel is the one and only reason for the problem that exists — that of a rather rundown, but interesting, group of buildings.

The other deciding factor in the general appearance of this area is, there has not been enough money available (and the qualified personnel to spend it) for the objects and maintenance to improve the rooms. An area like this cannot live on donations alone. [1904]

Swearingen's primary short-term recommendations were 1) to increase museum security by keeping objects out of arm's reach behind stanchions, not displaying the most valuable items, and having visitors always accompanied by a guide (this was contrary to the "informal" tour approach then taken at the monument); 2) to keep exhibit lighting subtle, subdued, and very indirect; 3) to improve labeling; and 4) to make the fort appear "lived in" by purposeful placement and arrangement of artifacts. Swearingen also made suggestions about displays in the west cabin (then called the bunkhouse), and the east cabin (referred to as the blacksmith shop and tack room).

Swearingen's long-range recommendations were to 1) increase security by adding personnel and giving regularly scheduled tours; 2) add heating and lighting in ways that did not impact the "purity of the period;" and 3) keep walls, floors, and woodwork in good condition, with minor disrepairs promptly tended to.

The fact that the fort was unheated and objects suffered extremes in temperatures was a serious concern. Swearingen encouraged the use of costumed staff that put "warm bodies" back into the historic scene. This would both add security, help maintain cleanliness, and boost the visitor's imagination. These recommendations, if carried out, would not only impact collections management issues but would change the practice of interpretation at Pipe Spring. While the "living history" idea already appealed to Pipe Spring staff (interpreters had experimented with a few demonstrations in the midst of their tours), Bozarth and Olsen's successors were given even more reason to head down that road after Swearingen's report. Yet the key issue was personnel. Where were they to come from and who would pay for them?

112. Arizona Governor Jack Williams, assisted by "Miss Fredonia," at ribbon cutting ceremony for dedication of State Highway 389, August 5, 1967 (Photograph by Hugh Bozarth, courtesy Zion National Park, neg. 4502-A).

113. Fredonia Mayor Warren Dart Judd with his wife Olive (left) and Governor Jack Williams and wife (right) at the Pipe Spring fort, August 5, 1967 (Photograph by Hugh Bozarth, courtesy Zion National Park, neg. 4284).

The formal dedication of the State Highway 389 road took place in Fredonia on August 5, 1967. Superintendent Hamilton and his wife attended the event, along with Mrs. Charles J. Smith, widow of Zion's former Superintendent Smith. [1905] Governor Jack Williams was the main speaker at the dedication. He and his wife, along with Mayor Warren Dart Judd and his wife Olive, visited the Pipe Spring fort later that day.

While the main road contract included construction of the spur road to the monument off State Highway 389, no plans had yet been made to improve the road to Moccasin further north, past the spur road to the monument entrance. On August 14, 1967, a meeting was held between the Mohave County Supervisor Bob Gilpin, Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake, and Indian Service engineers to discuss the matter. It was decided the road would be realigned, with Mohave County helping the Indian Service with funding.

It was mentioned earlier in Part VIII that there appeared to have been some health repercussions in the area of Pipe Spring from the nuclear weapons tests conducted in the 1950s at the Nevada Test Site. In Bozarth's monthly report to the director for May 1967, he made the following report:

From the New York Times Service, dateline Washington: The U.S. Public Health Service 'Leukemia Discovered in Clusters'.... One such baffling cluster was reported in the small isolated settlement of Fredonia in Northern Arizona. Four Leukemia cases developed within four years in a population of 643. This represents 20 times as many cases as would be expected in a community that size... [1906]

Documentary photographer Carole Gallagher wrote in 1993:

Cancer was such a rarity that when a cluster of leukemia deaths struck the small towns of Utah and Nevada a few years after testing began in 1951, even the doctors had no idea what this illness could be. One nine-year-old boy who was brought to the hospital in St. George was diagnosed as diabetic by a physician who had never seen leukemia before. This child died after one shot of insulin. [1907]

Other than Bozarth's reference in 1967 just cited, no other references to such health concerns were mentioned in monument documents from the 1960s. The multitude of health effects from above-ground nuclear testing during the 1950s (and the government's liability to pay for alleged damages) have been vigorously debated in courts of law for many years. It is simply worth noting that any ill effects to Utah and Nevada citizens or wildlife would equally apply to northern Arizona for it, too, was heavily blanketed with radioactive fallout during the testing period.

Hugh and Lenore Bozarth left the monument at the end of the 1967 summer season. A going-away potluck was held for them at the monument on August 29. Bozarth was promoted and transferred to White Sands National Monument as chief ranger and reported for duty there in early September. [1908]

Harter Steps In

Bozarth's departure from the monument added to a personnel emergency at Zion National Park since at that time a ceiling was placed on Park Service employment. In addition to there now being two vacant positions at Pipe Spring (permanent park historian and management assistant), Zion had three vacant positions of its own. In the fall of 1967, Zion had authority to hire only one person for the five vacancies. James M. ("Jim") Harter was hired to manage the monument on a temporary basis because a permanent replacement could not be hired at the time due to strict Service-wide restrictions on hiring. He was hired as a GS-5 seasonal park guide and came on duty September 5, 1967. Zion was forced to terminate Acting Management Assistant Harter when his 180-day limitation expired. He was then rehired under the 700-hour clause. To keep someone on duty when Harter and Bolander were absent, Melvin ("Mel") Heaton of Moccasin was hired as a seasonal laborer. Bolander was on sick leave for a month, from about November 9 to December 12 (see "Deaths, Accidents, Missing Persons, and Family Matters" section). Seasonal Laborer Ray Mose was also working that fall. Both he and Mel Heaton were terminated in early December. Paul C. Heaton was rehired in the spring of 1968 as a seasonal guide, working weekends. Mel Heaton was also rehired in 1968 and 1969 as a seasonal laborer.

In September 1967 Harter broached the subject of obtaining juniper poles from Bureau of Land Management (BLM) land to be used "for future corral building near [the] fort." [1909] The BLM was agreeable, so he went on several fall trips with Mel Heaton and BLM Range Manager Marvin Jensen to survey areas where juniper was available. On October 17 Harter met with Vernon Jake to discuss the Tribe's proposed plans for developing facilities near the monument. This was probably the earliest of many other meetings to be held with the Tribe concerning development topics in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

During Harter's brief tenure at Pipe Spring, efforts were made to reseed part of the monument with native grass. In September 1967 Harter obtained seed from the BLM office in Kanab for revegetation. The superintendent at Fort Union National Monument also sent a burlap bag full of grama grass seed to Joe Bolander in January 1968, and in early February, he planted the seed north of the fort and on top of the fill covering the old meadow pond. [1910] Revegetation efforts would expand considerably during the summer and fall of 1968 under Ray Geerdes' administration.

On November 7, 1967, the Zion roads and trail crew spent two days at Pipe Spring working on the picnic area and striping the parking lot. On December 5 Zion's Chief Ranger Bob Peterson, Chief Naturalist Jim Schaack, and Chief of Maintenance Joe Davis visited to discuss plans with Harter for the fort's heating and rewiring. They also measured for a pressure pump system to supply a planned visitor contact station with water and for fire protection.

In January 1968 a temporary visitor contact station was installed, located southeast of the fort ponds, about 30 feet west of the concrete block comfort station and north of the picnic area. [1911] In February Zion crews put in a sewer line, leveled the building site, and then began working on the facility. (They also installed a 500-gallon water tank that month which improved the existing fire protection system.) Work was completed on April 10. The old trailer office, in use since March 1959, was taken away on April 29, 1968. Zion contributed several display cases for exhibits in the building. On May 5 seasonal Park Historian Allen Malmquist entered on duty. One of his first assignments was to prepare an Indian exhibit in the new visitor contact station, which he completed that month.

In the spring of 1968, Jim Harter accepted an appointment at Oregon Caves National Monument. He and his family left Pipe Spring National Monument on April 5, 1968. As was customary, a farewell picnic was held several days prior to their departure, attended by 40 people from Moccasin and the surrounding area.

Geerdes and the Neighborhood Youth Program, 1968

Supervisory Historian Raymond ("Ray") Geerdes arrived with his family on April 25, 1968, to oversee the Pipe Spring National Monument. Right away, Geerdes began filing a monthly log of significant events upon his arrival. Just prior to coming to Pipe Spring, Geerdes had worked at Sitka National Historical Monument in Alaska, and earlier at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. [1912] One of Geerdes' first actions was to contact local Forest Service and BLM officials for their advice on native grass revegetation. Soil Conservation Service personnel visited in May to offer their advice. [1913] On May 18, 1968, the community of Moccasin held a picnic at the monument and extended its customary hospitality to newcomers by inviting all monument personnel. The month's culminating event was the birth of a sorrel colt to Geerdes' mare at Pipe Spring on May 27. Both horses sported Hawaiian names, Lani (the mare) and her colt, Kamehameha - surely a rarity on the Arizona Strip!

The two and one-half year period that Geerdes supervised Pipe Spring National Monument was one of great challenge and change. During this period, the plans of the Kaibab Paiute Tribe to develop a tourism complex that would provide jobs for its members posed difficult problems for Park Service administrators. Geerdes saw those problems as opportunities to forge a new relationship with the Tribe, one that would benefit both it and the Park Service, and to incorporate additional lands and cultural resources into the monument. Those events, and examples of earlier monument cooperation with the Tribe, are discussed in a later section, "Planning and Development with the Kaibab Paiute Tribe and Associated Water Issues."

Thanks to Geerdes' past experience and persistence, the summer of 1968 transformed Pipe Spring National Monument's interpretive program. If Bozarth planted the seed for the living history program, it must be said that under Geerdes it took root and sprouted, mainly due to his familiarity with government-funded youth employment programs implemented under President Johnson's "War on Poverty" policy. Geerdes had worked directly with the Neighborhood Youth Corps program for a year and one-half while at Sitka National Historical Monument where he supervised the program for the Borough of Sitka. [1914] During his first month at Pipe Spring, Geerdes contacted Fredonia High School officials to begin laying the groundwork for the monument's participation in the NYC program, traveling to NYC offices in Flagstaff and Phoenix. He also met frequently in May (and again in June) with Vernon Jake to discuss employing Paiute youths at the monument. A background on the program is provided below.

The Neighborhood Youth Conservation program was handled by a sponsoring agency, which in this case was the State of Arizona, under the federal government's Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO). The State handled financing, payrolls, insurance, apportionment of openings, and dealt directly with the OEO. Youth could work up to 26 hours per week. Once the school year started, the in-school program allowed employment of about 12-16 hours per week, fitted into weekends. Under the out-of-school program (during the school year), youth could work up to 32 hours per week. [1915] Rules required that enrollees meet an income criteria, thus it favored enrollees from low-income families as well as "at risk" youth, such as high school dropouts. For its part, the recipient agency was to contribute "in-kind" services to the youth. At Pipe Spring such services included assisting with their transportation, providing work experience, remedial education, as well as guidance and counseling. In addition, Geerdes or his staff helped the youth find jobs, assisted them when they got into legal jams, and interacted with social workers and schools on their behalf. [1916] Enrollees working as guides also received instruction in Western history. Compared to other Indian tribes that ran their own NYC programs (such as the Navajo), the Kaibab Paiute obtained a program on their reservation quite late, in 1974. [1917]

Geerdes felt that relations with the Kaibab Paiute Tribe in particular would be improved by hiring some of their youth under the NYC program, and several were hired. [1918] Not all Indians hired under the program were Kaibab Paiute, however. Many were Navajo. Geerdes estimated about 30 or 40 Navajo families lived on the outskirts of Fredonia in the late 1960s. Many were impoverished and living "in wooden shacks," he reported. [1919] These families relied heavily on employment at the Fredonia lumber mill. VISTA enrollees in Fredonia played an important role in locating eligible Navajo youth and getting them enrolled in the area's NYC program. [1920]

The monument's first student enrollee, Steve Tait of Fredonia, started working weekends at Pipe Spring in early May 1968. [1921] In late May Geerdes spoke with the NYC Area Coordinator Andrew ("Andy") Sandaval in Flagstaff by phone about getting enrollees at Pipe Spring. Sandaval oversaw a five-county area, designated the Northern Arizona District Action Council in 1969. On June 11 Geerdes was informed that he would be able to get NYC workers for the monument that summer. He spoke with the program's contact in Colorado City on June 14, but by the time Park Service authorities in the regional office and Zion National Park approved his involvement with the program, enrollees there had already found other assignments. By June 14 nine enrollees were signed up to work at Pipe Spring, three girls and six boys, all from either Fredonia or Moccasin (the latter primarily from the reservation). More boys and girls were added during the summer. Enrollees worked 26 hours per week, up to 10 weeks.

Geerdes had no trouble selling Zion's Superintendent Karl T. Gilbert on the idea of employing youth under the government programs. For one thing, staff at Zion National Park already had experience using NYC workers since 1965. Formal approval from the regional office was still needed, however. When Gilbert forwarded Geerdes formal proposal to Regional Director Frank F. Kowski in late June 1968, he pointed out that

... aside from the benefits of the work projects, it is a mutual undertaking linking the National Park Service with local organizations and people. At Pipe Spring this is a much-needed public relations factor and has our approval even if only on this basis.

The planned period-costumed attendants within the fort follows recent thinking on that subject, and this experimental project will be an inexpensive method of determining its feasibility and value.

This office is giving approval to his [Geerdes'] program, which will be under our continual scrutiny as it progresses. [1922]

Kowski later congratulated Gilbert and Geerdes for proceeding with setting up the NYC program at Pipe Spring. He asked that monument staff play particular attention to visitor reaction to the costumed attendants in the fort and added, "As you know, this approach is in complete accord with the director's desire to experiment further with park attendants in period costume. Please furnish us with pictures when possible and an evaluation of the effectiveness of this part of the program so that we may send them to Washington." [1923]

Ultimately, in 1968 a total of 15 NYC enrollees was assigned to the monument over the course of the summer allowing to test out the living history program concept on a limited basis as well as to accomplish special project work. Of the 10 NYC boys enrolled that summer, four were local Paiute and five were Navajo: Russell Tom, Clarence Tom, Timothy Rogers, Gerald Jake, Corwin McFee, Johnnie Manymule, Keith Yazzie, Rex Tsi, Larry Stephenson, and Johnny Simpson. [1924] At the beginning of the summer, two white girls from Fredonia and one Paiute girl from Moccasin signed on with the NYC program: Gina Henrie and Shirla Bundy from Fredonia, descendents of "pioneer" Mormon families, with villages in southern Utah named after them (Bundyville and Henrieville); and Claudina Teller, a Paiute girl, whose family of course had even older ties to the area. Henrie and Bundy had period dresses they made at home with the help of older ladies in the community "to conform to the type of dresses worn by Mormon Pioneer young ladies of the period of the 1870s and 1880s," Geerdes later reported. [1925] It was initially planned for all three to be in period dress, but Teller could not obtain a Paiute costume as she (and Geerdes) had hoped, thus the Fredonia girls were the ones who worked in costume and escorted visitors that summer. Teller assisted in cleaning the fort and with office duties such as answering the phone, typing, and filing. (The other girls also performed these chores as time allowed.)

Claudina Teller appears to have initially preferred office work to working as a guide. Geerdes wrote that when she first came to the monument to work, while both intelligent and attractive, she was also "extremely shy, withdrawn, and introverted." During that summer, Geerdes felt she "developed poise, responsibility, and initiative." [1926] Teller mastered the Park Service filing system and took on many routine office chores. Precisely because she was Indian, monument visitors displayed a keen interest in talking to her, and gradually she grew more comfortable speaking with strangers.

At the beginning, Geerdes planned for the girls just to act as "greeters," meeting visitors at the parking lot, giving them the monument's informational leaflet, and escorting them to the visitor contact station. Then uniformed guides were to take them on the fort tour. Park Service staff, however, discovered early on that the visitors preferred to tour the fort with the costumed girls! (Those visitors who were more historically oriented or who had more in depth questions were escorted by a uniformed historian, Geerdes reported.) In addition to guide service, the girls also sometimes demonstrated how the rug loom worked. After the girls finished guiding visitors through the fort, they brought them back to the contact station where monument staff talked with them about their experience and answered questions. The costumed guides were so popular that Geerdes received permission from Sandaval to hire two more girls in early August, Helen Jensen and Patty Tait. [1927] Geerdes wanted to "break in" two more girls for the first two would not meet the age requirement to participate in the NYC program the following year. Geerdes later estimated the NYC program saved the Park Service $3,718 that year; the volunteer women from Moccasin contributed services worth at least $400.

NYC boys performed an entirely different function during the summer of 1968: hard, physical labor. All the Navajo boys assigned to Pipe Spring were from Fredonia and rode to work with seasonal guide Paul C. Heaton. Heaton interacted a great deal with the young enrollees working on the monument. [1928] The first project the boys worked on was the construction of the long-planned nature trail. (See "Nature Trail" for details on trail development.) For their next project in late July, the NYC boys began clearing a seven-acre area on the west side of the monument to prepare for seeding to native grasses. Geerdes' goal was to recreate "historic range conditions" on several areas. [1929] The general area the boys were working in, of course, was the Civilian Conservation Corps' Camp DG-44 site. The boys removed remnants of CCC-era foundations as well as brush and willows. Check dams were constructed to retard soil erosion. In less than a one-month period, the boys contributed 700 man-hours to this project. By late August the west side area was cleared and ready for disking and harrowing. By early October this area was hand-seeded with a variety of native grasses purchased by the Zion Natural History Association. [1930] "Native Grass Restoration Project I" had been completed. The savings to the Park Service by using NYC labor for the construction of fencing, corrals, and native grass restoration was estimated at $4,500. (See "Nature Trail" section for other work performed under NYC labor.)

114. Map showing nature trail and native grass restoration project areas, 1968 (Pipe Spring National Monument). (click on image for an enlargement in a new window)

Allen Malmquist prepared the site map shown in figure 114. The map was included in an Environmental Study Area Inventory that Geerdes submitted to Zion's Superintendent Gilbert on July 13, 1968. In addition to the nature trail, it depicts the areas originally planned for native grass restoration. (Reports of the period suggest that the NYC boys worked only on the area labeled Project I.) The numbers along the nature trail indicate sites where metalphoto markers were placed.

Geerdes held several summer picnics, which helped build camaraderie between workers at the monument and the community. The first was on June 27, to which all employees and their families were invited. A total of 60 people attended. Geerdes held another all-employees' picnic on August 19. By the time their summer appointments ended on August 24, 1968, the NYC girls had contributed a total of 1,119 hours of work; the boys had contributed 1,302 hours. [1931] Considering that six rattlesnakes were found and killed during that July and August, it's rather amazing that all the enrollees stuck around for the entire summer! [1932] In addition to the threat of snakes, on August 7, 1968, a lightning bolt struck between the visitor contact station and the east cabin near a large group of 30 visitors being escorted by NYC enrollee Gina Henrie. The work did have its hazards!

Geerdes complied with Kowski's earlier request for an evaluation of using costumed attendants in the fort in early August 1968. After two months, Geerdes judged the program as an "unqualified success." The girls giving tours, he reported, "became rapidly knowledgeable as [to] the details of the fort and the history of the area," although Geerdes does not describe precisely how they were trained (presumably they were given the monument's historical handbook for starters). [1933] While it was not originally intended for the girls to act as fort guides, due to their popularity, about 90 percent of their time was spent with visitors. Often, visitors discovered they had some family ties with the girls' families, adding to their mutual enjoyment of the tour. Visitors were "enthralled" by the girls, Geerdes wrote. He reported,

The period dress format fits in very well with the idea of a living history ranch (farm) idea. In short, these young ladies have given the old fort and our interpretation of it a living, vital dimension, pleased and benefited several thousand of our visitors, and have not involved any direct expense except the time of their training and supervision.mcm [1934]

Moreover, Geerdes added, "An unforeseen advantage in the program was the involvement of all of the NYC enrollees in the monument values and, by extension, through their parents and families to the entire Fredonia and Moccasin community." [1935] Geerdes intended to continued the NYC program in order to build on the new program. As he had predicted, it increased the monument's interaction with the Indian community of Moccasin, and Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake reportedly dropped by the monument several times a week to informally discuss business with Geerdes during this period. [1936]

In the fall of 1968, four Youth Conservation Corps program youth were hired: Bulah Hosey, Lynn Ballard, Delaine O. Cox, and Rudy Johnson. They were all terminated at various dates during November. Geerdes received permission from Sandaval to hire NYC youth during the 1968-1969 school year, and several were hired in November and December 1968, one being Fredonia high school student Heber Heaton (Mel Heaton's brother) who worked 10 hours per week at Pipe Spring as part of the NYC's in-school program. In November that year, Joe Bolander was promoted from laborer to park guide, subject to furlough. Once Bolander was converted to park guide, the monument had no permanent maintenance person on staff for the remainder of the decade. Also that fall, Zion staff Joe Davis, Keith Wilkins, and Jim Schaack visited the monument to study the fort's lighting and wiring systems. In December 1968 the monument was forced to close on Saturdays and Sundays due to government cutbacks. Geerdes reported the monument received no adverse criticism about the closure that month.

In January 1969 Geerdes met with Andy Sandaval in Flagstaff to discuss the effectiveness of the NYC program at Pipe Spring in 1968. He was promised a tentative allotment of 12 NYC enrollees for the summer of 1969. This, Geerdes later reported to Superintendent Gilbert, would allow the fort to be continuously staffed with two girls in period dress while a crew of three to five boys assisted staff with outdoor jobs. Sandaval granted Geerdes permission to employ up to six Navajo boys that winter under the out-of-school program, on the basis that Geerdes met the qualifications of a counselor. (Geerdes had formerly been both a school counselor and high school principal.) That month Geerdes hired three boys, Herman Tso, Norman Curley, and Herbert Haskie, all Navajo living in Fredonia, ages 16-21. Two other Navajo boys were hired later, but their names are not known. Timothy Rogers was hired under the NYC's out-of-school program during part of the 1968-1969 school year.

Claudina Teller also worked during the fall of 1968. Geerdes helped her get into the Phoenix Indian School for its second semester, so she left the monument at the end of 1968. She planned to return and to work at Pipe Spring during the summer of 1969, and talked of making a Paiute costume out of four deer hides before that time. In May she wrote Geerdes from Phoenix and asked if her friend Glendora Snow (then attending school in Phoenix but also from Moccasin) could work at the monument with her that summer. Geerdes replied that he would be happy to have Glendora. [1937] The two girls started working together at Pipe Spring on May 26. Once Teller completed training Snow, their schedules were split so that they usually worked together only one day a week that summer. Teller and Snow were originally supposed to work in the visitor contact station but they ended up also working as guides. [1938] Geerdes reported in early August, "The Kaibab Paiute have been included in our new interpretation with three girls in Indian dress working as guides this summer. Although the Paiute didn't play any direct role in the history of Pipe Spring, the girls are encouraged to discuss their heritage with visitors." [1939] The girls wore buckskin dresses with beads and other fringed ornaments, Geerdes later reported. [1940]

Geerdes also reported on his experience working with Navajo NYC youth at the monument:

These Navajo boys are good workers and are bilingual. One of them is a highly skilled carpenter and has made several bookcases for us and will do other carpentry work. The other boys are doing men's work in helping us finish our corrals to be used for our historic ranch branding program this summer.

We are helping these boys in many ways. We have conducted a driver's class so that they can learn the Arizona highway laws and qualify for a driver's license. We have gone to the judge for several of them when they had to appear for driving without a license.... One day a week the entire crew is sent over to the [Kaibab] Indian village to help on the Indian housing project which has fallen behind. [1941]

The increased work force that winter enabled the monument to enlarge the corral below the east cabin and to construct a fence around the meadow area at very little cost. [1942] This work expanded on the "living ranch" theme Geerdes was promoting. Work was done on the meadow-fencing project in January and was completed in February 1969. Juniper posts for both the meadow fence and corral were obtained by permit from nearby BLM lands. A half-mile of five-strand barbed wire fence was obtained by permission from Forest Service land near the Grand Canyon and reused in the meadow fence. Four sections of horizontal rails made of quaking aspen were placed on the side of the juniper post fence nearest the fort so that visitors could sit or lean on the rails "Western style" while watching or petting saddle horses kept inside the area. In late February work began on the main corral complex below the east cabin. The reconstructed corral was enlarged into a corral complex, using old corral materials donated by area ranchers. [1943] Under Mel Heaton's supervision, NYC boys (all Navajo from Fredonia) erected both the meadow fence and the corral complex. While the boys were bilingual, Heaton also spoke Navajo, having served his two-year Church mission on the Navajo Reservation.

In March 1969 Anthony G. ("Tony") Heaton of Moccasin donated an old chicken coop, in keeping with the "living ranch" goal of including more farm animals in the fort's setting. Heaton reported the coop was made from lumber taken from a blacksmith shop formerly located at Pipe Spring. [1944] In addition to chickens and the traditional pond ducks (as well as his own horses), Geerdes introduced geese into the scene in either 1969 or 1970. (At some point locals began referring jokingly to Pipe Spring as "Geerdes' Goose Ranch!") Fowl were fed the corn grown in the monument's "historic garden," and eggs from the chickens were distributed to the "poor and needy," reported Geerdes. [1945]

During part of March and April 1969, Geerdes was away from the monument attending two courses at the Mather Training Center. By the end of April, the corral complex was completed enough for the monument's first branding events, and three branding demonstrations were given on May 3, 24, and 30. [1946] It is not known who originated the idea, but these events were widely advertised. Geerdes described the program as "an unqualified success." [1947] Both white and Indian stockmen from the Moccasin area demonstrated the branding and sorting, branding their own calves. [1948] The Navajo NYC boys, all good horsemen, helped local ranchers round up the cattle and also participated in the branding event, along with Park Service employees. [1949] Geerdes described the vivid sights and smells during a demonstration and the manner in which the activity was interpreted to those watching:

The branding is for real. The blue smoke arises as hot irons touch cowhides. The piercing brawl of the branded calf, the acrid smell of burnt hair, the dust swirling in the corral, and the milling herd all testify to its reality. Explanations are given to the visitor on state laws regulating branding, the why and how of branding, the purpose of branding and dehorning, and the historical continuity at Pipe Spring back to the Winsor Castle Stock Growing Company. It has gone over big...

Yet with all its dramatic sights, smells, and sounds branding is not a sideshow at Pipe Spring. It is an integral, gut function of our living ranch. It is Living Interpretation here at its best. [1950]

The branding events were well publicized in Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, and Flagstaff newspapers. Out-of-state visitors talked about it when they returned home, prompting one call from the New England area asking when the next branding would be scheduled! The popular demonstration was held again with more than 200 attending on August 15, 1969, when David Johnson branded about 40 head of calves. On September 15 Moccasin's Bishop Owen Johnson and his two sons, David and Ronnie, demonstrated cattle branding for several hours for the benefit of 40 Albright Training Center trainees and their instructors. The branding demonstrations were another step in the direction of the "living ranch" theme Geerdes strove to put into effect at Pipe Spring.

Geerdes wanted to expand the program and also yearned for a full-time NYC supervisor to oversee the boys' project work during the summer months. He also wanted a full-time community aid to perform clerical duties in the office (he had Rosetta Teller, a Paiute girl, in mind for the latter position). The monument staff was "strained to the breaking point," he wrote program directors in Kingman and Phoenix in May 1969. He asked for their help in getting a work-crew supervisor and community aid, without which, he informed them, the interpretive program at the monument might be discontinued or curtailed. [1951] Not to cut political corners, Geerdes had already written to Senator Barry Goldwater in early April to ask for his support of Pipe Spring's NYC program. Goldwater assigned one of his staff to provide Geerdes assistance in acquiring the supervisor and park aid.

The 1969 Summer Program: Adding Volunteers

During the summer season of 1969, 18 youth were employed at various points under the NYC program, which ended August 30. That summer, girls were paid $1.30 per hour and boys were paid $1.60 per hour. [1952] Once again they were Paiute and Navajo boys and girls, and white girls from Fredonia. [1953] As in 1968, they worked 26 hours per week, with boys working as laborers and girls primarily as costumed guides. The Fredonia girls wore long, "pioneer-period" dresses and the Paiute and Navajo girls wore "Indian dress." [1954] In addition to giving tours, the girls cooked, sewed, operated the loom, and played the organ, all the while displaying increased confidence over the prior summer. They also did office work. Geerdes reported the Indian girls were "pleasantly surprised" to find so many visitors interested in asking them questions. Visitors were drawn to the girls and sometimes engaged for an hour or more in conversation with them. Geerdes felt this boosted the self-esteem of the Kaibab Paiute girls in particular. [1955]

On July 14, 1969, Andy Sandaval came from Flagstaff with one of his assistants to observe the NYC enrollees working on site. Ten days later he returned with another assistant (Lupe Anaya) and took movies of the youths. Enrollees performed over 3,000 hours of work at the monument that summer. Over the entire year, the monument utilized 27 enrollees in in-school and out-of-school programs; their combined contribution in labor totaled 11,814 hours. [1956]

In addition to the use of NYC youth at Pipe Spring during the summer of 1969, Geerdes incorporated more adult volunteers from Moccasin into the interpretive program. That year he experimented with such volunteers just on the weekends, beginning in May with the branding demonstrations and going to late June. Owen and David Johnson from Moccasin and Alfred Drye from Kaibab Village oversaw the branding demonstrations. From late May to late June (a total of seven days), women from the Moccasin Ward's Women's Relief Society came in period dress to assist in period demonstrations. [1957] Geerdes later reported some of the women wore authentic 100-year-old clothing passed down in their families. The first day of the women's demonstrations overlapped with the final day of the men's branding demonstrations (May 24). The women baked bread on the fort's old stove, crocheted, quilted, operated the rug loom, and played the organ. Soap making and butter churning were also added at some point that summer. During the same period, Claudine Teller and Glendora Snow demonstrated corn grinding to visitors using manos and metates. The two Kaibab Paiute girls were situated outdoors on the south side of the fort ponds near the steps.

Geerdes later described that summer's program to a private citizen from Banning, California (the man was formerly of Kanab). He had seen a newspaper article about the monument and had written, inquiring about it. Geerdes wrote to him,

Here at Pipe Spring we have initiated several programs on the way to making this a 'living ranch,' much as it was in the 1870s. During the summer months we have a staff of high school girls from Fredonia that come in pioneer dress, guide visitors through the fort, and demonstrate many of the pioneer's activities. They cook, wash, weave, sew, and garden. Since Pipe Spring was a cattle ranch, we would be justified in setting up a complete cattle operation here. This season the only aspect of such an operation that was practical on the Monument was branding in the corrals just east of the fort.... The three weekend sessions were very popular with visitors. [1958]

In fact, it all worked just as Geerdes had envisioned: visitors loved the new living history program at Pipe Spring and attendance increased dramatically that summer. Geerdes calculated visitation for June 1969 was more than 50 percent higher than for June 1968, a marked increase that continued for the rest of the summer. [1959] (Visitation for September-December was about 25 percent higher than for those months the previous year.) What is most perhaps notable is that the improvements to the monument's interpretive program required only minimal direct expense to the Park Service. Rather, they were realized through, and heavily dependent on, the use of the government-sponsored youth employment programs and a new, previously untapped resource - local volunteers. There is no question that Geerdes had truly effected positive and dramatic change at Pipe Spring in just one year, charting a new interpretive course for the monument that would continue into the early 1970s. At some time about mid-August 1969, Geerdes' title was changed from supervisory historian to management assistant; his title was changed again in November to area manager. [1960]

By the end of the summer of 1969, Geerdes expanded the monument's direct involvement with the NYC program. Local and county Community Action councils oversaw the OEO program. During August both Geerdes and Mel Heaton were elected to the Coconino Community Action Council which gave them seats on the five-county council that met monthly in Flagstaff, giving the monument a stronger voice in NYC and other OEO programs operating in the area. [1961] Under the OEO's Operation Mainstream program, a full-time, year-long training position at the monument was funded for a clerk-receptionist. Konda Button, a young widow living in Fredonia, was interviewed for the position in September and was hired in October (see "Personnel" section). The monument's responsibility to Button (and to the program funding her) was to provide training experience, counseling, and supervision. She in turn worked just as an agency employee would. While the monument had benefited in 1968 from some office assistance provided by a few female NYC enrollees, this was the first time the administration had such help on a year-round basis. During the fall of 1969, Geerdes also hired two Navajo boys under the NYC's out-of-school program, Norman Curley and Melvis Slim, both of whom had prior work experience at the monument. The two Fredonia youth rode to work with Konda Button.

Editor Ron Greenberg of the Park Service's Interpreter's Newsletter visited Pipe Spring on December 3, 1969, with plans to write an article on its new interpretive programs. Geerdes was ready for him, making special arrangements for another branding demonstration. He also brought in four of the previous summer's NYC girls in costume and installed them in the fort for Greenberg's visit. Greenberg was suitably impressed: Pipe Spring earned the first five pages in an issue of the Interpreter's Newsletter. A story in the same issue on Yellowstone National Park only made page 7; Geerdes was on cloud nine! Other monument staff and members of the local communities were all quite proud - and deservedly so - of what had been achieved in 1968 and 1969 through mutual effort.

Confidant that much could still be accomplished with the work force he had tapped, Geerdes compiled an ambitious list of goals for fiscal year 1970 that included 15 projects. Among them was the "rejuvenation" of the Whitmore-McIntyre dugout, excavation of the old lime kiln and construction of a pathway to it, construction of a trail to the Powell survey monument (located on the reservation), reconstruction of historic watering troughs, replanting a vegetable garden, establishing a fruit orchard, cultivation of the grape arbor, as well as continuing with all the programs established by the summer of 1969. [1962] Other 1970 goals were to replace the asphalt walks with native flagstone, work with the BLM on the Arizona Pioneer Roads project, experiment with a wagon ride concession, and provide proper heating and lighting in the fort. [1963]

In January 1970 a corral-style fence of horizontal quaking aspen poles was constructed along the front of the parking lot and along the roadside of the picnic grounds. The fence was installed to keep people away from the drainage ditch and culverts, to facilitate fee collection (though none was yet being assessed), and to eliminate camping problems in the picnic area. Geerdes felt that it also enhanced the "historic attractiveness and atmosphere of the area." [1964] In March a Park Service electrical engineer and landscape architect met with Southern Utah Group officials and representatives from GarKane Power Company to work out details for installing an underground power line. During May an historian and historical architect from the Western Service Center inspected the fort to review plans for wiring, heating, and lighting.

In 1970, other than Operation Mainstream employee Konda Button, Ray Geerdes was the only permanent, year-round monument employee. Seasonal staff included Park Guide Bolander, Seasonal Park Historians Allen Malmquist and Tony Heaton, Maintenance Foreman Mel Heaton, laborer Paul C. Heaton, and - on an intermittent basis - laborers David Johnson and Alfred Drye. Steve Tait was also hired as a seasonal employee. Tony Heaton was a history teacher at Hurricane High School. [1965]

Working with and living among the mostly Mormon population of surrounding Arizona Strip communities was a positive experience for Geerdes and his family. He had been there just under two years when, in early 1970, he received anti-Mormon literature in the mail from the Christian Tract Society of Hemet, California. He sent the society an angry letter demanding to be taken off their "hate mailing list," writing, "I am not a Mormon but have never had finer neighbors to live with or people to deal with." [1966]

During the summer of 1970, 19 NYC enrollees worked at the monument under the in-school program, two under the out-of-school program, and two under Operation Mainstream. All were from Fredonia or Moccasin. [1967] Geerdes both expanded and made more authentic the range of demonstrations offered that summer, including starting a "Paiute demonstration." [1968] This project consisted of the NYC boys constructing several reproduction Paiute wickiups and a lodge. Other work performed by the boys that summer included weeding and irrigating the seven-acre plot of land replanted in native grasses the previous year and working on maintenance projects, such as trail improvement and erosion control. The costumed girls continued to offer guided tours with demonstrations, to clean the fort, and to perform office work.

In late July 1970, Dr. Irving Handlin, the Southwest Region's NYC coordinator, visited the monument. Geerdes later reported that Handlin was enthusiastic about the monument's NYC program. In August Geerdes was elected chairman of the Fredonia-Moccasin Community Action Council while Konda Button was elected its secretary. That month BLM Natural Resource Specialist Strafford Murdock and C. M. McKell, head of the Department of Range Science at Utah State University, Logan, Utah, inspected the monument's native grass restoration area. The men were enthusiastic about the project and evaluated it as an "unqualified success," Geerdes later reported. [1969] Another native species that McKell suggested Geerdes use for reseeding was Galleta grass. [1970] That fall, the Department of Range Science sent Geerdes some of this type seed.

Branding demonstrations were continued during 1970 and received increased publicity. A demonstration was offered to a group of trainees from the Albright Training Center on January 19, 1970, and again on April 6. The interpretive aspects of the branding program were discussed with trainees. Dubbed a "living ranch," Pipe Spring National Monument was one of only five such areas in the entire Park Service. [1971] That year, from May 11 to May 16, five men from Harpers Ferry Center's Division of Audio-Visual Arts filmed cattle roundup and branding activities in order to depict one aspect of the Pipe Spring's living ranch program. The group was under the direction of Carl Degen. His crew made a 28-minute movie from the shooting. Public brandings were held on May 14, 16, and 29. Two more branding demonstrations were arranged in September, one for the Phoenix Dons Club and one for a class from the Albright Training Center. [1972]

While the Harpers Ferry Center crew was there, Geerdes discussed with one of them the possibility of putting on a telegraphy demonstration the next summer. He wanted to train one of the NYC girls to "play" 17-year-old Luella Stewart, using the telegraph set to transmit messages to another former Deseret Telegraph Station in St. George. He also wanted the interpreters to demonstrate butter and cheese making, but had not yet located an Oneida cheese vat.

An operations evaluation was conducted at Pipe Spring National Monument from July 30 to August 15, 1970. The resulting report pointed out that the monument lacked formalized management objectives. While the monument's existing master plan never contemplated the area begin operated as a living ranch, current operations clearly reflected that objective. While it commented favorably on the new interpretive program, the evaluation team observed that Geerdes' ability to carry out the living ranch theme depended heavily on personnel provided under various OEO-funded training programs. They advised that the Park Service begin staffing the area to enable the monument to continue its interpretive programs "so that when and if these temporary programs are discontinued, we do not have to discontinue these effective interpretive activities." [1973] The team noted that visitation figures were already 30 percent higher than those for 1969. As in the past, the monument still charged no entrance or use fee. The report recommended that a decision on a fee should be put off until the current master plan study was completed. A horticultural plan was needed "to preserve the historic orchard." The team commended Geerdes for his relations with various outside organizations: "He has pursued a program in external affairs for the benefit of the services to the public which is generally far beyond the scope normally expected of an area manager for a unit the size of Pipe Spring." [1974]

115. Barney Burch (left) and Tony Heaton (right) take part in a branding demonstration, 1969 (Pipe Spring National Monument).

116. Attentive onlookers watch Tony Heaton (left) and Herman Tso (right) lasso a calf during a branding demonstration, 1969 (Pipe Spring National Monument).

In September 1970 Geerdes reported to officials at Harpers Ferry Center that Pipe Spring's living ranch enticed visitors who planned to make a quick stop at the monument to linger much longer. The smell of home-baked bread; the friendliness of local costumed girls; feeding the chickens, ducks, and geese; or getting nuzzled by the colt, Kamehameha, all added to the pleasure of their stop and to the richness of their experience. That month Ray Geerdes accepted a promotional transfer to Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park as supervisory park historian. He left Pipe Spring on either October 8 or 9 and reported for duty at Kennesaw on October 18. Geerdes left behind a transformed interpretive program that attracted high numbers of visitors and that forged improved relations with neighboring communities, Indian and Mormon alike. The alliances he made with the Kaibab Paiute under the NYC program would be particularly critical in the days ahead. The response by Geerdes and his superiors to the challenge of tribal developments in the late 1960s (described later in the "Planning and Development with the Kaibab Paiute Tribe and Associated Water Issues" section) also turned a potential water crisis into a model for interagency cooperation. His would be a hard act to follow indeed!

Personnel

117. Joe Bolander, undated (Pipe Spring National Monument).

Information on Hugh Bozarth's departure from Pipe Spring in 1967 and his temporary replacement, Jim Harter, was provided in the earlier "Monument Administration" section. Two new employees entered on duty at Pipe Spring in 1968, Ray Geerdes (late April) and Allen Malmquist (May). For more information on these two men, see the "Monument Administration" section. Malmquist was converted to an intermittent appointment in November that year. He returned to work as seasonal historian in 1969 and 1970. Tony Heaton began working as a seasonal historian during the spring weekends of 1970.

Joe Bolander, hired as an ungraded laborer in late 1963 (referred to as "caretaker"), initially commuted to work daily from his home in Orderville, Utah. In June 1964 he asked if a trailer site could be designated for his use so that he could park his trailer there and live on site during the week. As there were still water and sewer connections at Jim McKown's old trailer site, he was given permission to put his trailer there. Bolander worked for a number of years doing maintenance and repair work around the monument, assisted at times by Ray Mose. Bolander was a natural born storyteller who loved recounting the monument's history to visitors. Probably shortly after Bob Olsen's departure (the fall of 1966), he began giving guided tours out of necessity. In April 1968 Regional Director Kowski took a fort tour guided by Bolander. Kowski was well pleased with the experience. Bolander was promoted from laborer to park guide, subject to furlough, on November 17, 1968. In March 1970 Bolander attended a course in oral communications for park technicians at Mather Training Center. He continued working at the monument through January 1976.

Park Historian Bob Olsen was remarried on July 7, 1964, in Salt Lake City. He and his wife Lauri were honored by the ladies of the Moccasin community at an open house given at Pipe Spring on August 14. The couple's first child (a son) was born in Salt Lake City on February 23, 1966. From mid-March through April 1966, Olsen spent six weeks at an interpretive methods course at Mather Training Center in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Olsen took a promotional transfer to Whitman Mission National Historic Site in Walla Walla, Washington, in September 1966. A going-away picnic was held for the Olsen family on September 17. The family left Pipe Spring monument on September 23, 1966, with Olsen reporting for duty in Walla Walla on September 26.

Mel Heaton was hired as seasonal laborer in the fall of 1967 and continued working at the monument until May 1979. Mel was the son of former monument laborer and guide Kelly Heaton and Nora Heaton, who would also later work at the monument. From the start, Geerdes was aware that Mel Heaton was interested in becoming a park guide at the monument. (See "Monument Administration" section for specific references to work Heaton performed or oversaw at Pipe Spring.) Heaton attended various Park Service training courses in 1969 and 1970, including classes on law enforcement, modern welding, and environmental maintenance. At some point in 1969 Heaton's title was changed to "foreman."

Ray Mose continued as seasonal laborer at the monument through 1967. Joe Bolander and Mel Heaton worked in 1968 as caretaker and seasonal laborer, respectively. Shortly before Bolander was promoted to park guide, Doyle C. Winder was given a temporary appointment as laborer in early November 1968. During the summers of 1969 and 1970, David Johnson was working at the monument as an intermittent laborer. Alfred Drye was also hired as an intermittent laborer in 1970.

Bozarth and Bolander served as park guides until the following spring of 1967 when Paul C. Heaton of Fredonia was hired, first as a seasonal part-time park historian, then during the summer as a full-time employee. Heaton worked again for the monument during the 1968-1970 travel seasons.

As mentioned earlier, Konda Button of Fredonia was hired as clerk receptionist under the OEO's Operation Mainstream program in October 1969. Under this program, she had to be given four hours of remedial education per week along with one hour of counseling. Button received training at Zion and Bryce Canyon, as well as at the Flagstaff NYC office. She took a course in general business at Fredonia High School and received instruction on the history of Southern Utah and Mormon settlements under Geerdes' tutelage. Geerdes intended to hire her when her year of Operation Mainstream expired the following October. [1975]

Planning and Development with the Kaibab Paiute Tribe and Associated Water Issues

Aside from those changes referenced in the earlier "Monument Administration" section, very few changes to the monument's physical plant took place from 1964 to 1970. Monument staff worked on preparing chapters for the monument's master plan in 1964 and 1965. No visitor center or nature trail constructed was constructed under the Mission 66 program, due to lack of funds. The trailer office continued to be used until the visitor contact station was installed at the monument in early 1968 (referenced earlier). An important shift in the monument's planning and development activity during this time period was the evolution of a closer working relationship between monument staff and the Kaibab Paiute Tribe. This shift was prompted by a number of synchronous events: the completion of State Highway 389, the availability of financial resources and planning assistance to the Tribe to enable them to develop tourism-based facilities, and the Park Service's own desire to carry out planning goals during a period of tight fiscal restraints. The Park Service's willingness to cooperate with and assist the Tribe to attain their goals was also spurred by a concern over protecting monument resources, including its "historic scene."

The monument's early efforts in the 1960s to forge cooperative agreements with the Tribe got off to a rocky start. After the tri-partite water agreement of 1933, it was another 30 years before the next agreement of a cooperative nature was executed between the monument and the Kaibab Paiute Tribe. Even then, the agreement was plagued with problems. In late 1963 Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake gave the monument permission to use the Tribe's newly dug garbage pit near Kaibab Village. (According to Management Assistant Hugh Bozarth, the Tribe originally dug this pit at his urging.) In February 1964, however, the Tribe indicated they expected the Park Service to share in the pit's maintenance expense. At Superintendent Oberhansley's direction, Bozarth drafted an agreement stating that the Park Service would share in trash pit maintenance. That seems to have been an amicable arrangement at the time. Almost one year later, however, in January 1965, the Tribe informed Bozarth that a fee of $15 per month would be charged for use of their garbage dump site. Bozarth was taken aback by the request and immediately began looking for another site to dispose of monument refuse. He learned in February that Fredonia officials would allow the use of the town's dump for a fee of $25 per year (as opposed to the tribal fee, which amounted to $180 per year). Bozarth contacted the Tribe and asked about continuing the joint-maintenance agreement of the dumpsite as opposed to paying a monthly fee but a response was very slow in coming. Meanwhile, the monument used Fredonia's dumpsite while awaiting a reply from the Tribal Council. In March Bozarth learned that certain Moccasin residents were dumping their trash into the Tribe's dumpsite with neither permission nor payment. "This is none of our business, but such are their relationships," he informed Zion officials. [1976]

In November 1965 Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) official Harry Dohm of Gallup, New Mexico, visited the monument and reservation to mediate a settlement between the monument and Tribe over the use of the reservation dumpsite. In December the Tribal Council met and discussed the matter but no decision was reached. By early 1966 they were offered the rate of $5 per month to use the reservation dump, which Bozarth agreed to pay. Even though the total of $60 per year exceeded the $25 a year he was then paying the town of Fredonia, it was worth not having to drive 15 miles to Fredonia to dispose of the monument's garbage.

From time to time, there were interactions between the Tribe and monument personnel on other topics. In connection with the construction of State Highway 389, Bozarth reported in February 1964 that the Tribe was considering setting up a trading post at the intersection of State Highway 389 and the road leading to the monument. Vernon Jake indicated that the post would be Indian-owned with someone contracted to operate it. As mentioned earlier, Bozarth suggested to Jake about this time that the Tribe consider building a camping area for visitors.

In April 1966 Bozarth reported that as the completion of the rerouted State Highway 389 approached, the Tribe was making plans to "establish a public service of some sort at the Moccasin intersection near the monument." [1977] Bozarth pointed out to Zion officials that any such development by the Tribe would require culinary water from Pipe Spring, not just the pond water from which their present share was derived. Such a situation would impact the water distribution method that had been in place since the three-way division box was installed in the summer of 1934. Bozarth wrote that the monument's water collection box (beneath the fort's parlor floor) was barely adequate to meet the monument's needs for culinary water. He supported the Tribe's desire to offer services that met a public need, and again encouraged tribal officials to consider putting in a camping area and a trading post.

The first formal notification of the Tribe's development plans came in the fall of 1967. Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake wrote a brief letter on October 18, 1967, to Superintendent Hamilton informing him of the Tribe's development plans:

With the recent completion of Arizona State Highway 389, the Kaibab Paiute Tribal Council is now concerned with development of tourist facilities near Pipe Springs National Monument.

We plan to develop several facilities including a campground, service station, restaurant, grocery and curio stores, and possible a motel. Additional traffic generated by completion of this highway will undoubtedly create a need for further development of Pipe Springs National Monument.

In order that both NPS and Tribal development projects be compatible, we request that you let us know what you have programmed for the monument. [1978]

Hamilton responded two weeks later, praising the Tribe's development plans as "a very worthwhile endeavor" that would meet area visitor needs. He wrote that while the principal development planned by the monument was to improve its interpretive facilities, there were other concerns:

We hope to obtain a Visitor Center where information could be provided to the visiting public and some of the exhibits would be displayed for better interpreting the history of the Fort. We would hope to eventually have more people on the staff with the increase in travel, and this would require some additional housing. As you perhaps know, with our limited space we are now discouraging camping on the Monument and will eventually restrict the site to picnicking only. We certainly do not plan to develop any facilities such as the types you are considering.

I certainly hope your plans to develop the tourist facilities will become a reality. If we can be of any assistance to you we will be glad to do so... [1979]

Hamilton offered to meet with Vernon Jake at Pipe Spring to further discuss the Tribe's plans. The matter was discussed at the November 1, 1967, Zion staff meeting. It was brought up that "some time back" there had been talk of the Indians needing a larger share of water from Pipe Spring should they actually carry out their development plans. Park Service officials opined at the meeting that the Tribe "should have enough water with their present one-third share if they made provision for proper storage of the water." [1980] By 1969, however, it would be quite apparent that they were wrong in making that presumption.

The Tribe's development plans were in large part driven by the availability of economic aid from the Economic Development Administration (EDA) which had an office located in Santa Fe. The EDA funds were funneled to various tribes through the Indian Development District of Arizona (IDDA), an NPS-administered program which functioned to assist tribes in developing and improving their economic and social well being. (IDDA was not connected to the BIA.) IDDA staff assisted the tribes with planning, design, and production of construction drawings. [1981] On December 7, 1967, Guy McIntosh, Ernest Rice, and Bill Tom of the BIA visited Pipe Spring with Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake. They discussed with Jim Harter future development plans for tourist facilities near the monument. At the request of IDDA's Project Planner Gene Griffin, a meeting was held on March 20, 1968, between Superintendent Hamilton, Landscape Architect Gene Switzer (Lake Mead National Recreation Area) and Griffin at Pipe Spring to discuss the Tribe's proposed developments. Funds came from tribal contributions and from IDDA. Preliminary plans proposed placing a campground and other developments at the intersection of State Highway 389 and the spur road to the monument, located immediately north of the highway. There was also some discussion about the possibility of a motel but this would be "sometime in the future," Hamilton reported to Regional Director Beard. [1982]

Switzer sent a more detailed report of the meeting to the Design and Construction Office, San Francisco Service Center, which included a sketch map showing the location of proposed developments. [1983] He reported that a Phoenix architectural firm (which had never seen the site) had drawn up sketches of a proposed complex that included an 80-100 unit motel, curio store, cafe, a service station, and a pay campground-trailer complex. Very little research had been done in planning the whole proposal, Switzer wrote. There were no master plan, topographic maps, aerial photos, or feasibility studies, to base plans on. Griffin indicated that IDDA did not want to ask the BIA for assistance. Switzer reported,

In our discussions we tried to diplomatically emphasize that the NPS did not intend to discourage them in a development but that the NPS was not in favor of it being located adjacent or in close proximity to the monument. It was felt that a commercial development would cheapen the historical values, the impact and impression to the visitor upon entering the facility, as well as his views to the outlying open countryside.

Our recommendations were that if the development became a reality it should be located to the east of the intersection...

After viewing several possible sites for a campground complex a location about one-half mile to the east of the monument was suggested.... It would require very little site preparation and is out of sight of the highway and monument but close enough to provide the visitor a panoramic view of the countryside and a trail system to the monument.

Water to the site would be derived from the [Indian] pond near the monument entrance and would have to be delivered through a pressure system. [1984]

Switzer pointed out that State Highway 389 was being used as a shortcut to the North Rim of the Grand Canyon and to Glen Canyon National Recreation Area from Interstate 15. Still, he could hardly imagine the large-scale developments being planned by the Tribe as a "paying proposition" in such a remote area. "The Monument itself or the reservation are not or have not been that great an attraction," he pointed out. Switzer agreed to assist the Tribe in the planning process as his time permitted, by providing information about technical matters pertaining to the preparation of a study, master plan, federal standards, etc. He informed them, however, that he could not actually prepare the master plan, renderings, and working drawings himself, as Griffin had hoped.

Discussions about tribal development plans continued after the arrival of Ray Geerdes to the monument in late April 1968. In May Zion's Chief of Maintenance Joe Davis and Civil Engineer Denny Galvin (Southwest Region) visited to look over the monument's water situation. In July three BIA officials also visited the monument while investigating the Tribe's proposed commercial developments.

118. Sketch map showing initial area proposed to locate Indian developments, April 1968 (Pipe Spring National Monument). (click on image for an enlargement in a new window)

On July 13, 1968, Ray Geerdes wrote Superintendent Gilbert about an Environmental Study Area Inventory for the monument. He had received permission from Vernon Jake to include several areas within the reservation boundaries in the park's environmental education interpretive program. These areas were the Pueblo ruins south of the fort, the Heart Canyon petroglyph area, and the Powell survey monument north of the fort. Jake also agreed to allow a way trail that connected these areas to Pipe Spring National Monument's new nature trail. Geerdes felt these features belonged within the monument and he had approached Jake about the idea of the Park Service acquiring these lands. Geerdes reported,

When Mr. Jake was here the other day I discussed the general ideal [sic] with him of acquiring these areas. From this discussion I concluded that Mr. Jake is very receptive to the idea and would consider a land exchange for BLM land adjacent to the reservation. The economic value of the area outlined is almost nil as far as grazing land is concerned, but would be of tremendous value in interpreting the area. I would like to discuss this in detail with you at the first opportunity. [1985]

No records of further correspondence or discussion on this proposal are found for 1968, but the issue would be revived in late 1969.

On January 10, 1969, two men from the Phoenix BIA office, Architect George M. Causland and Engineer Victor Lund, visited the monument in connection with a proposed tribal office building. Originally, Geerdes and Vernon Jake planned to go Flagstaff that day to talk with Andy Sandaval about NYC issues. [1986] When Geerdes cancelled out (presumably to attend to the BIA meeting), Jake made other plans. On that day (January 10), a terrible accident occurred. Vernon Jake and three others -Fredonia's Mayor Arland Brooksby, Fredonia policeman Eldon Johnson, and Merrill ("Buddy") Button - were killed when their small plane crashed near Fredonia. The group was returning from a Soil Conservation Service meeting in Kingman, Arizona. All monument personnel attended the group funeral, which was held in Kanab. [1987] Bill Tom succeeded Vernon Jake as tribal chairman.

In late February, at the request of Gilbert, Geerdes prepared a summary of the monument's contacts and relations with local Paiute and Navajo. He reported that on February 12, 1969, IDDA Assistant Director Frank H. Carson spent a day at Pipe Spring explaining "all the possible Indian Development plans." [1988] The role played by IDDA in tribal developments was somewhat puzzling at that point to Geerdes who added,

What his relationship is with Mr. Gene Griffin, also of the IDDA... is not clear. In fact, the exact relationship of the IDDA and the BIA and local tribe is anything but clear. We were courteously cooperative, but I do have certain reservations about the promotional nature of this organization, its representatives, and their relationship to the above mentioned groups. [1989]

119. Sketch map showing general area Park Service proposed to acquire from the Kaibab Paiute Tribe through land exchange, 1968 (Pipe Spring National Monument). (click on image for an enlargement in a new window)

Geerdes also described involvement by monument staff in the summer youth programs, cooperation in law enforcement matters, and cooperation on development issues. Gilbert forwarded a copy of this report to Superintendent John E. Cook of the Navajo Lands Group. Cook was impressed with the report. He wrote back to Gilbert,

I certainly commend Supervisory Historian Geerdes for an excellent summary [of contacts with local Indians] and what appears to be an excellent feeling toward the local Indian people.

I particularly wish to commend him for his astuteness in acquiring 'certain reservations' about IDDA. Mr. Frank H. Carson was recently the Navajo Tribal Parks & Recreation Director and succeeded in adversely affecting our relationships with the Navajo Tribe. I recommend 'due caution' when dealing with or around Mr. Carson (I'll fill you in further in Santa Fe next week).

You might have Geerdes continue with this Navajo NYC as is and steer clear of the reservation program. It is quite political and unpredictable now and it sounds to me as if you've already a good thing going at Pipe Springs. [1990]

Over the winter of 1968-1969, the Tribe began building homes as part of a new housing project at Kaibab Village. [1991] The BIA construction superintendent was short of workers and asked Geerdes in February if he would loan some of his NYC boys for the housing project. Tim Rogers was reassigned permanently to the housing project. (Application to the Flagstaff office to refill Rogers' slot at the monument was turned down. Monument personnel were informed that the area was over its quota. Another attempt to hire an out-of-school youth that spring resulted in a heated exchange between the Flagstaff coordinating office and Geerdes. [1992] Another serious conflict arose that summer between Geerdes and Flagstaff officials over the latters' refusal to pay enrollees they had dropped from the program. [1993] ) One day a week, Geerdes released five Navajo NYC workers to work on the Kaibab Village housing project. By July two Park Service representatives sat on the Paiute-Kaibab Housing Authority, a five-member group, with Geerdes as vice-president and Mel Heaton as secretary. The organization supervised the construction of housing on the reservation as well as new water works construction. While the Tribe, BIA, and IDDA oversaw housing construction, this particular water development project on the reservation would primarily be the Park Service's responsibility. That is the reason for the participation by Geerdes and Heaton on the Housing Authority.

On April 6, 1969, Karl T. Gilbert was appointed general superintendent of the newly established Southern Utah Group (SOUG). Administrative oversight of Pipe Spring National Monument was transferred from Zion to SOUG. That following May and June a number of meetings were held at Pipe Spring between BIA officials and Geerdes regarding the Tribe's development plans. On May 13 Albert R. ("Al") Purchase, BIA Lands Operations Officer from the Hopi Agency at Keams Canyon, discussed the BIA's building plans and future water needs with Geerdes. Purchase advised Geerdes that construction of the tribal office building was to begin in the fall of 1969, just three months later. The new 3,000 square foot building was to have public restrooms and showers. It was estimated that the building's water usage would vary between 2,000 and 5,000 gallons per day. Development plans for a motel, store, filling station, and campground complex were scheduled at that time for the spring of 1970. Geerdes phoned Gilbert that day informing him of the situation. [1994] Al Purchase phoned Gilbert the following day formally advising him of the Tribe's plans to construct the office building.

On May 16, 1969, Gilbert sent a memorandum to Regional Director Kowski regarding the Tribe's development plans and his concerns about the impact on water use at Pipe Spring. Recall that the monument had yet to develop a modern water system, although one had been planned for many years. In his memorandum to Kowski, Gilbert raised several questions:

An expansion and updating of the present Pipe Spring water system is programmed for the near future. The question now comes to mind as to the advisability of a joint NPS-BIA system. Should this be considered? Are there advantages or disadvantages to it? This utilization of a single spring in the development of two separate water systems of considerable size certainly offers problems. [1995]

No event since the early 1930s had created such an immediate need to reappraise the monument's water situation, nor posed more of a threat to a mutual agreement that had been unchallenged and in place for 36 years. Up to this point, water to the Tribe had been provided from the fort ponds, water used by them primarily for stock watering and secondarily for irrigation, not for culinary use. Thus it was not only the increased amount of water needed by the Tribe that necessitated a change in the old arrangement but the kind of water needed. After conferring with Gilbert it was decided that Geerdes would check with the regional office and San Francisco Service Center regarding both the monument's requirements for water and the possibility of establishing a cooperative arrangement with the Tribe. On June 16, 1969, Geerdes received an unexpected visit in the late afternoon by BIA Plant Manager George Easton (also from Keams Canyon) and local Paiute officials. According to Geerdes, Easton "demanded to know where the new BIA water tank and line could be laid." [1996] Geerdes reported the visit to Gilbert that day. On June 18 Gilbert and Joe Davis traveled to Pipe Spring to inspect the monument's water supply in order to prepare a response to Easton's demand for immediate information.

By July 1969 tribal development plans brought the matter of water at Pipe Spring to a point of "critical reappraisal," reported Geerdes. [1997] Materials were being stockpiled for the Tribe's new office building. On July 2, 1969, a meeting was held at Pipe Spring to discuss the water distribution problem. It was attended by Karl Gilbert, Joe Davis, Jim Schaack, Bill Fields, and Ray Geerdes. [1998] Fields later wrote regarding the tribal office building, "the plans were drawn, the contract was let, and preconstruction conference held without firming [up] any plans for water for the building." [1999] It was obvious that the Tribe's one-third allotment from Pipe Spring would not meet the demands of its proposed developments. Gilbert, Davis, Schaack, Fields, and Geerdes agreed that the ideal solution would be to drill one or more wells to serve as the primary source for culinary water. Fields volunteered to request a USGS study from the Water Rights Division and ask them to schedule a test well. Fields later wrote,

It was also agreed that we should 'lay it on the line' to the Indians and BIA and attempt to work out something mutually beneficial on the spot without resorting to a discussion of legal ramifications. We will point out to them that without this spring flow there would be no Monument and without the Monument there would be little use for their complex. [2000]

There was another reason the Park Service wanted to cooperate with the Tribe on the development of a joint water system. Use of the main spring for culinary water by monument staff was responsible for an undesirable situation: when the Park Service's culinary system was in operation, the spring did not flow through the spring room, due to insufficient flow. The entire system, Bill Fields concluded, needed to be rehabilitated if the monument was to continue its use of the spring for culinary water. "Of course, if we can get culinary water from another source then the original system will work much better..." wrote Fields. [2001] A formal request from the regional office to the supervisory hydrologist, San Francisco Service Center, for a USGS study of the ground water situation was made on July 11, 1969. A request for a test well to be drilled west of the monument was also made at about the same time.

It was brought up at the above-referenced July 2 meeting that legal ownership of Pipe Spring had never been firmly established. If the Park Service's legal right as full legal proprietary owner was nonexistent preceding and apart from the Presidential Proclamation establishing the area as a national monument, then the use of water would be governed by the Winters v. United States decision. But, as in the past, there appeared to have been little enthusiasm on the part of either the BIA or the NPS to force the legal issue. Why was this so?

Recall that the Office of Indian Affairs (later renamed the Bureau of Indian Affairs) had long denied Charles C. Heaton's claim to ownership of the Pipe Spring property both before and after it was transferred to the National Park Service. Heaton had never relented on the issue, however, and the Park Service had acquired it much as they would have a privately owned property, except, that is, for the long delay in transfer of the quitclaim deed. The question of water rights — never legally settled at Pipe Spring — hinged on whether the Pipe Spring property was public domain at the time the reservation was created, or whether it was privately owned. As described in Part I of this report, Heatons' application to locate Valentine scrip certification for the Pipe Spring ranch had been held for rejection by the Commissioner of the General Land Office on April 10, 1920. Assistant Secretary of the Interior Edward C. Finney denied Heaton's subsequent appeal on June 6, 1921. As far as the BIA was concerned, the matter ended right there and meant that Pipe Spring was part of the public domain when the reservation was established. But Heaton's lawyers filed a motion for review of the June 6 decision. The case had not yet been reviewed when the monument was established. The Heaton family no longer needed to battle the issue. [2002] The legal quagmire that remained, however, resulted in future headaches for both the Park Service and Indian Service. There was reticence on the part of the heads of the sister agencies to create an all-out interdepartmental conflict. More importantly, both agencies stood to lose by pushing for full ownership of the springs. This appears to be the primary reason why the tri-party agreement stood unchallenged for so many years.

On July 3, 1969, Ray Geerdes reviewed every bit of data he could find in the monument's files on the Pipe Spring water situation. He then began preparing a lengthy memorandum to Gilbert attempting to piece together the ownership history of the ranch, which he referenced as "Some General Thoughts on Water Distribution." The Park Service had inherited a "clouded title," he concluded, which meant "a clouded water situation today." [2003] Geerdes referenced the impact that the 1957 Arizona v. California water rights case had in forcing the federal government to obtain legal documents pertinent to its ownership of Pipe Spring. In Geerdes' opinion, it then had all the proof needed to establish exclusive rights of ownership to Pipe Spring land and water. However, as the tri-party agreement was working well, the Park Service saw no reason to "rock the boat" with a legal battle. [2004]

Geerdes wrote Gilbert in the July 3 memorandum that it was in the best interests of the Park Service, "without stirring up any controversy," to do whatever was necessary to "uncloud" its title to Pipe Spring. He continued:

We should above all, honor the water arrangement with the ranchers and assure them of our every intention to do so. They are our strongest allies. Their established beneficial usage to the water, which is recognized by Arizona law, is only really valid against the legitimate heirs of the private title of the Pipe Spring property. If we have a solid undisputed title and water rights, then they do also since their rights are but a lien or obligation against ours. They are and will be our stanch, friendly allies. Besides the right established under Arizona law, there is the 1924 agreement giving them one-third of the water, subsequently honored by the tri-party arrangement of 1933.

We should assure the Indians that we do not want to go back in any way on the one-third division that was made in 1933. However, it is obvious from an amateur appraisal of the situation that the eventual needs of the new development far exceeds the one-third allowed them. At that time then Pipe Spring also would be hard pressed to maintain its water needs and its oasis-like character with even a close partition of water. This critical usage would come during the summer months, of course. In short, there is simply not enough water for our growing needs and their new plans.

Also, we are already furnishing them their share of the water which, as good neighbors, we can adjust to greater quantity or lesser quantity to keep their stock tank full. It is seriously questioned whether the new development, as such, calls for any water at all other than that which they may wish to divert from the prior use of the stock watering tank. This is in no way a 'prior' use. If we succumb to this new usage now, we do so at serious peril of the integrity of the National Park area. In addition, the problem may become acute when they utilize their third to the full, and then some aggressive type in the BIA or IDDA decide to go after a larger share. The failure to establish our real legal title puts us in a precarious position here. [2005]

"If we succumb to this new usage now, we do so at serious peril of the integrity of the National Park area." Geerdes' fear was that should the Tribe ever begin using more than its allotted third, it might set a precedent for "prior use." This made it all the more important for the Park Service to resist yielding more than the Tribe's one-third share of water to them for their new developments.

Although dated July 3, 1968, Geerdes' memorandum was both completed and transmitted to Gilbert on July 7. There the letter was edited and retyped before distribution, curiously omitting Geerdes' final paragraph. Immediately following the paragraphs cited above, he had originally written,

Hopefully a better solution is in the offing. On June 25, 1969, Tribal Chairman Bill Tom received a letter advising them that the Kaibab Paiute Tribe would be the recipient of an Economic Development [Administration] grant which would provide 80 percent on $8 a foot maximum for drilling and casing of water wells and to provide up to 3,000 gallon capacity storage tank. [In] a discussion with Bill Tom this morning (July 7), Bill expressed himself as in complete agreement on the well rather than taking any more or different Pipe Spring water. He expressed complete interest in not hurting the future of Pipe Spring. He asked whether the Park Service could go into [the] joint well project and asked for a joint meeting on July 8 with himself, Mr. Ferrell Secakuku, Assistant Director in the Economic Development Administration and Park officials. This is a happy breakthrough and should be exploited immediately. [2006]

It is not known why Gilbert chose to delete this paragraph from the circulated copy which went to the regional office, the Park Service's Water Rights Division, and possibly others.

On July 8, 1969, Karl T. Gilbert, Ray Geerdes, Bill Tom, and Assistant Director Ferrell Secakuku (IDDA) met again at the monument to discuss water and development issues. Geerdes later described the meeting as "amicable." Gilbert reported on the July 8 meeting to Regional Director Kowski on July 10. As a result of the meeting, he reported,

... the Indians now realize that a water problem does exist, and that Pipe Spring does not flow sufficient water to meet the needs of all concerned.

The meeting was friendly and cordial. The initial approach by the Indians was, 'What are you going to do to help us, and how soon?' Through explanation of our overall program we were able to re-channel their approach to a realistic one involving a solution pending a survey, resulting in possible well sites, by the U.S. Geological Survey. I am sure that the Indians understand that the maintenance of the Pipe Spring National Monument in an 'oasis' state means as much to them as it does to us. They understand that their proposed development would mean little to the traveling public without the Monument serving as an attraction and focal point.

The Indians are still pressing for a joint system, thinking totally along the lines of economy and hoping that the National Park Service will shoulder the major burden. At this time I am not in favor of a joint system; however, I do think that a single system, owned and operated by one agency, could meet the needs of all concerned. Water produced by one agency could be furnished to the other on a cost of production basis.

The water situation at Pipe Spring is critical and immediate action is imperative. We must be concerned with the Paiute Council's program of development as we cannot risk the chance of a well along the fault north of the Monument. Such a well could seriously damage the present spring.

...Further developments scheduled for the near future are a service station, 30- unit campground, 10-site trailer court, 20-unit motel with swimming pool, country store, and small restaurant with snack bar.

In our discussion water rights were not discussed. At no time did this come up, nor was there need to bring it up. All talk was based on the division of waters from Pipe Spring. Supervisory Historian Geerdes has now researched the Pipe Spring water ownership and has prepared a lengthy summary. This document will be sent to you in the near future.

Again, I emphasize the urgency of the Pipe Spring water situation. [2007]

On July 15 Gilbert forwarded the edited version of Geerdes' July 3 memorandum ("Some General Thoughts On Water Distribution") to Kowski for review and consideration. He asked that Kowski also have Bill Fields and Field Solicitor Manges review it. In his cover memorandum to the regional director, Gilbert added,

At this time there is no reason to believe that the Kaibab Paiute Tribe will challenge the present water agreement. However, there is an indication that the Local Council may be pushed by the IDDA (Indian Development District of Arizona), an organization which apparently is not too greatly concerned with previous 'white man' agreements. [2008]

Subsequent events suggest that Kowski's office immediately requested cost estimates for a USGS study of ground water and test wells in the general area of Moccasin. A week later, the chief of the Division of Water Resources (Washington office) was informed by the Division of Water Resources, San Francisco Service Center, that a ground study would cost about $1,000-$1,500. The cost estimate for an 800-1,000-foot test well ranged from $15,000-$20,000. [2009]

Bill Field's report of the July 2 meeting at Pipe Spring and his analysis of the water situation was circulated to the appropriate officials in the regional office. William E. ("Bill") Brown, Special Assistant to the Regional Director for Environmental Awareness, wrote Gilbert after reading Field's report:

I have just read Bill Field's excellent analysis of the water situation at Pipe Spring, particularly with regard to the Paiute Indian installation and its possible extensions as a recreation complex feeding basically upon our National Monument visitors. Hope you can keep me posted on this one because the ecological implications of fooling around with the springs and the aesthetic problems that might ensue from over-expansion of the Tribal installation could have profound environmental management implications. [2010]

Brown reiterated his concern a few weeks later: "...as with the Steam Generator Plant at Lake Powell, we are dealing with other groups who have prerogatives affecting our resources, and we must do all we can to assure that our administrative and environmental conservation interests are guarded." [2011]

On August 5, 1969, IDDA Director C. G. McNeil and Assistant Director Ferrell Secakuku arrived at the monument. Instead of stopping at the office to see Geerdes, McNeil bypassed the contact station and, without identifying himself, had Joe Bolander take him around the area, asking him leading questions about the water. Later, Geerdes walked up to the fort and saw what he described as a "big, heavy-set Falstaff-like creature sprawled out on one of our benches, fast asleep. Later he came to life." Geerdes later reported to Gilbert,

The best way I can describe Mr. McNeil is to say that he is the Frank Carson type only worse.... With utmost effort I maintained extreme courtesy. He began to jump all over me about the water. Some of his questions, as best I remember them [were], 'Who told you that we needed all of your water just for the office building?' 'Why in the ___ can't we just hook on to your system?' 'You obviously [have] got plenty of water here — why won't there be enough?'.... These are just a few of his choice remarks. I have never seen so much obnoxious bluster in one individual. Last Friday... I had occasion to talk to John Cook, Navajo Lands Group Superintendent, and Regional Director Kowski. Naturally the talk swung around to the IDDA and Frank Carson. The 'Modus Operandi' of the IDDA was brought sharply to mind. [2012]

Geerdes advised Gilbert "that time is running out on us in a sense. If the water study would definitely materialize in the meanwhile, we would have something definite to go on."

The next day (August 6) BIA's George Easton returned wanting immediate access to Pipe Spring water. He informed Geerdes that the BIA's temporary solution to development needs was to run a temporary connection to the monument's culinary system and put a storage tank on the hill north of the visitor contact station. This was entirely unacceptable from the Park Service's position, but to stall for time, Geerdes countered that Gilbert's approval would be required prior to such an action. He suggested that the BIA pump water out of the ponds and purify it for their use as a temporary measure. An impasse was reached. Easton informed Geerdes his superiors would want to meet with Gilbert to discuss the situation.

The next meeting was on September 11, 1969, when BIA and NPS officials reached a temporary agreement on water usage at Pipe Spring. [2013] By mutual accord, it was decided (as a temporary solution only) that the BIA would tap into the pipeline outside the monument, which emptied into the Tribe's reservoir (the "Indian pond"). The water would require treatment before it could be used for culinary purposes. The agreement bought the Park Service additional time to wrestle with the problem and to work with the Tribe to find a permanent solution.

The Park Service adopted a two-pronged strategy in response to the situation. Water exploration and the construction of one or more wells seemed to be the obvious solution and best recourse. Southwest Regional Office officials gave the well-testing project top priority. The goal was to locate an alternate water source that would supply IDDA's entire planned complex as well as culinary needs of the Park Service. All Pipe Spring water then could be used for "natural development of the oasis like quality of the area," as Geerdes later asserted. [2014] Basic considerations were that the well needed to be as close to the monument as possible, its needed to yield at least 50 gallons per minute, and no reduction in flow of Pipe Spring would be tolerated (i.e., it could not tap the same water source from which Pipe Spring flowed). Consultation by Bill Fields with Geologist William F. Mildner of the Soil Conservation Service confirmed his suspicions that a well drilled along the Sevier fault in the vicinity of the monument would most likely affect the flow from Pipe Spring. [2015] Mildner thought that water could be obtained from the alluvial fill adjacent to Two Mile Wash (northeast of the monument) without impacting Pipe Spring. He volunteered to help locate the test well on the ground. In late 1969 the regional office scheduled the test well for fiscal year 1971 as its highest priority in the Southwest Region under Water Rights Acquisition funds. Once located, the cost of the well's installation was to be born by both the Indians and the Park Service. [2016] (Kowski learned in July 1970 that the Western Service Center dropped the test well item from the 1971 program. His office took immediate action to get it put back in. [2017])

The second strategy was to attempt to determine if the Park Service's proprietary ownership of Pipe Spring could be proven in a court of law. On July 31, 1969, Field Solicitor Manges was provided a copy of Geerdes' July 3, 1968, memorandum to Gilbert (referenced earlier) and other documents pertinent to Pipe Spring ownership. He requested more documents and information from the field, but had been given everything available at the time. It was clear that additional research was called for, as Geerdes had pointed out earlier to Gilbert.

Land Exchange Proposal Revived

Yet another complicated matter was thrown into the mix. Discussions about a possible land exchange between the Tribe, BLM, and NPS were revived during late summer of 1969. Whereas in the monument's early years the Park Service had objected to a boundary expansion, now Geerdes had no trouble in finding allies. There had been two primary objections in the past: first, that the archeological site had nothing to do with the Pipe Spring story and the reasons for the monument's establishment, and second, such an expansion would almost certainly and immediately be opposed by the Tribe. Now that the Tribe appeared willing to consider a land exchange, a boundary expansion appeared to be possible. As for the archeological ruins not relating to Pipe Spring, attitudes about environmental education had advanced considerably since private citizens and their elected officials had first proposed the expansion. Now Regional Interpretive Archeologist Albert H. Schroeder and William E. Brown, special assistant to the regional director for Environmental Awareness, favored the land exchange. In late August 1969, Schroeder wrote regarding the proposed land exchange,

This archeological site fits into the historical theme of the area, for it can be tied into environmental aspects of man's occupation of this region. A comparison of the Pueblo and Mormon settlement and subsistence patterns can easily be linked to the water situation in the general region....

This matter was discussed with Bill Brown of this office who feels that the environmental aspects of the two culture patterns could play an important part in interpreting man's use of the local environment. We both feel that a decision should be made in the near future, before we lose the chance of acquisition... [2018]

One other factor was driving Park Service officials to expand the monument's boundary. Some believed that increased vandalism would accompany reservation developments due to increased numbers of people who would be camped or lodged outside the monument. It was hoped that the land exchange would add land to the north and to the south, thus providing an ameliorating protective buffer.

General Superintendent Gilbert wasn't satisfied that Schroeder's memorandum only commented on the interpretive value of the archeological site. He wrote Kowski asking that Schroeder and Brown visit the site to consider the value of adding the Powell survey monument as well as a proposed scenic easement between the monument and State Highway 389. Gilbert made one other point, that "boundary adjustment consideration should be made only with an awareness of future water supply and demand in the area and with an eye to obtaining potential water sources." [2019]

During November 1968, Geerdes was accompanied by Southern Utah Group Environmental Specialist Gil Lusk to examine the area of contemplated additions to Pipe Spring (the "Anasazi" ruins, Powell monument, and Heart Canyon area). The total acreage to be acquired by the monument under the proposed exchange was about 760 acres. [2020] Preliminary discussions were held with Tribal Chairman Bill Tom on a possible three-way land exchange between the BLM, BIA, and Park Service. Geerdes reported that Tom and local BIA representative Ross William showed great interest in the possible exchange. [2021] This potential exchange strengthened the conviction of Park Service officials that clear, legal ownership of Pipe Spring needed to be established in order to negotiate with the Tribe on all issues from what Geerdes referred to as a "position of strength." [2022] Unexpectedly, legal assistance to Geerdes became available from within the Park Service. Legal Assistant William L. McKeel spent a day at Pipe Spring reviewing water rights, legal ownership matters, and the proposed land exchange. McKeel, an attorney attached to the Washington office but duty-stationed at Rocky Mountain National Park, was assigned to water rights, land exchange, and acquisition matters for the Park Service. McKeel offered his assistance to Pipe Spring National Monument in achieving a coordinated approach to all three issues.

During 1969 BIA and tribal plans for development took shape in ways that alarmed Park Service officials. Now, instead of being grouped together in one concentrated area (as shown earlier on the 1968 sketch map, figure 118), proposed commercial developments lined both sides of the road to Moccasin, just north of its juncture with State Highway 389. Such developments, if carried out, would have created an extreme visual impact looking both northward toward the monument and southward from the monument. If the Park Service could acquire the archeological site below the monument, at least vistas there could be preserved. On December 12, 1969, Gilbert wrote Kowski about the proposed land exchange. Acquisition of the lands containing the Powell monument, the Heart Canyon petroglyphs, and the Pueblo ruins "would make for a total historical environmental area and would make possible the complete historical story of Pipe Spring," he wrote. The question was, how to bring about the exchange? Gilbert stated,

The Paiute Indians are aware of these features. They are also, at the time of this writing, willing to exchange the lands on which these features are located for nearby Bureau of Land Management lands, providing the mechanics for such an exchange can be worked out.

The possibility of an exchange has informally been discussed with BLM officials. Extreme cooperation seems apparent; however, the mechanics for making such an exchange are presenting difficulties. Seemingly, Indian lands can be exchanged only through Congressional action. [2023]

BLM officials informed Gilbert that the Paiute had to initiate action to set the land exchange process in motion. He sought Kowski's comments on the matter. His letter was forwarded by Acting Associate Regional Director Monte E. Fitch to Director George B. Hartzog, Jr. Fitch sought advice on how to proceed, given the fact that authorization for the land exchange had to be requested by the Tribe. Fitch informed Hartzog that Arizona Representative Sam Steiger was sympathetic to Indian affairs and would probably be receptive to introducing the needed legislation if properly approached. Timing was of the essence, however. While Tribal Chairman Bill Tom was "easy to deal with and sympathetic with this exchange," the person next in line for his position had "a relatively hostile attitude towards federal agencies in general," Fitch had been told, referring to Tribal Vice-chairman Ralph Castro. [2024]

On December 19, 1969, Al Purchase and Ralph Castro visited the monument to review pending issues involved in a land exchange. [2025] They informed Geerdes that on the evening of December 18 the Tribal Council had unanimously agreed "in principal" to the proposed land exchange. [2026] The two men wanted to walk over to visit the features included within the proposed exchange, and did so in the company of Ray Geerdes and Mel Heaton. A seep spring used by Theodore Drye was included in the land under consideration. The men discussed the possibility of piping the seep spring water off the land but then agreed a better solution would be to provide Drye with water from the new Park Service well to be constructed. Much discussion transpired about the Park Service's wish to have all the land between the monument and the highway, as the strip just north of the highway was viewed as "prime" for tourism development. (Purchase seemed more opposed to losing this land than Castro.) The possibility of a joint museum was also discussed. There was no enthusiasm on either side for having two separate museums, one Park Service and one Indian, as Purchase had previously discussed with Kowski. With acquisition of the archeological site, the museum's primary focus (as the men discussed it that day) was to interpret prehistoric, historic, and present Indian cultures. The fort and its historic buildings were to be their own museum for interpreting the "pioneer" phase of Pipe Spring's history. Geerdes made it clear to Purchase and Castro that their discussions that day were "informal understandings," not binding agreements. In reporting the meeting to Gilbert the following day, Geerdes wrote that the Park Service's fear of Ralph Castro opposing the proposed land exchange was "no longer a factor. He became completely sold on the idea and especially a joint museum for display of Indian Culture." [2027] Castro also approved of the monument's native grass restoration project and suggested it be expanded to include the area between the monument and the highway.

By the end of 1969, Geerdes was excited over the possibility of the land exchange with the Tribe that would give the monument (in his words) lebensraum. [2028] Development plans were going forward for the Tribe and Park Service to locate and construct a well and to share a water system, and talks about a joint-museum had been encouraging. In a briefing statement to Kowski, Geerdes wrote that what was happening at Pipe Spring provided "a unique opportunity to make a pilot project of the Secretary's Point 11 Indian assistance policy. There is nothing like an idea in its time." [2029] How the Park Service responded to the Tribe's development plans, he asserted, would make the difference between "triumph or tragedy" for Pipe Spring's future.

On the same day, getting all his political "ducks" in a row, Geerdes wrote to Tribal Chairman Bill Tom describing the lands the Park Service wanted to acquire and extolling the ways the Tribe would benefit from the exchange. The Tribe was to receive "first class grazing land" next to the reservation from the BLM in return for the "depleted" grazing areas turned over to the Park Service. (It is unknown what the BLM was to receive from the Park Service in return.) An expansion of the monument to include and interpret Indian prehistory at the Pueblo ruins and Heart Canyon petroglyphs "would draw in many more visitors and be an economic asset" to the Tribe's plans for developing a tourist complex, Geerdes assured Tom. He concluded his letter by enthusing,

In short, Bill, I think that this exchange would be a great thing for your people. One of Secretary Hickel's major programs for the Park Service is to cooperate with the Indians in situations such as ours for the betterment of the Indian people and the promotion (with them) of their own authentic Indian culture. Undoubtedly our future at Pipe Springs is very closely and intimately bound with yours and it looks as though we will succeed or fail together in the future. [2030]

In late 1969 the Park Service created an Indian Assistance Division in Santa Fe to help coordinate efforts between Indian tribes and Park Service units. Civil Engineer Bill Fields was appointed chief of the new division. Already familiar with the complex gamut of issues at Pipe Spring National Monument and the Kaibab Indian Reservation, Fields continued to be actively involved in developments there into the 1970s.

Still, no one knew if or how the proposed land exchange could be carried out. On December 24, 1969, Assistant Director Edward A. Hummel responded to the regional office's earlier memorandum to Hartzog seeking advice on the proposed land exchange. Hummel suggested that Kowski work with Field Solicitor Manges to determine if the exchange could be made under existing legislation. Hummel said he would ask the Western Service Center's (WSC) Office of Land Acquisition and Water Resources in Denver, Colorado, to render any assistance Kowski required in the matter. [2031] (The WSC took over the San Francisco Service Center's role in late 1969.) The WSC subsequently checked into the matter and its chief, John E. Ritchie, informed Kowski that a land exchange was not possible since the act establishing the reservation precluded transferal of title of Indian lands. In order for a land exchange to be authorized, an amendment to the act establishing the reservation would be required, Ritchie stated. He suggested that the Park Service work out a cooperative agreement with the Tribe similar to an agreement made at Canyon de Chelly National Monument. [2032]

Joint Planning Continues in 1970

In March 1970 a joint meeting was held to further discuss development plans. [2033] Attending the meeting were Art White, Landscape Architect Volney Westley, and Bill Fields, all of the SWRO; Karl T. Gilbert and Jim Schaack (SOUG); Joe Davis (Zion); Landscape Architect and Planner Dan Wilson (Lake Mead NRA); Ray Geerdes; Al Purchase and Ferrell Secakuku (BIA); and some members of the Tribal Council, including Bill Tom. Arrangements were made for an immediate planning study to be undertaken. A preliminary joint master plan and request to conduct a water study were given to Tom to take to the Tribal Council for approval.

BIA representatives Leroy Horn and Robert ("Bob") Orchard met with Geerdes at Pipe Spring on March 25, 1970, and with Gilbert and Tom the following day to discuss development and land exchange issues. They reported back to the BIA's area director that the Park Service wanted to restore the monument's 40-acre site to its historic appearance, remove the picnic area and all other structures not built during the historic era, build a visitor center between the Moccasin road and Section 17, and develop the Indian ruins below the monument. [2034] (At that point, the Park Service planned to relocate the monument's staff housing to reservation land leased from the Tribe.)

In late March 1970, some time after the Park Service, BIA, and tribal meeting had taken place, the Tribal Council met. Soon after, Bill Tom came by the monument and met for three hours with Geerdes. The Council had approved the joint master plan, Tom told him, but time had run out at the meeting before the water survey could be discussed or approved by the Tribe. He did not anticipate any problem, however, if Park Service officials sent him a specific request for tribal approval to drill a test well. Tom conveyed to Geerdes that while he felt he understood the range of issues discussed at the earlier meeting, he had difficulty communicating and explaining them to other tribal members. He asked if Geerdes or Gilbert could attend a tribal meeting soon to help him articulate some of the ideas that had been discussed. Tom told Geerdes that until the water problem was solved, tribal plans to construct a motel and swimming pool had been put on hold. The two men also discussed the proposed land exchange as it related to the building of a joint use visitor center. Geerdes later reported to Gilbert,

As far as the possible joint museum and interpretive center, he said that the tribal leaders all favored giving the Park Service the land right up to the new Moccasin road with the idea that eventually we would construct a large visitor center museum somewhere near the present cattle pond in which they could cooperate with us in some kind of cooperative agreement. He indicated that any time we wanted to move on the land exchange that they would initiate a request through channels or through Goldwater or other sources. They realize that even if the land exchange went through and the cooperative agreement for a joint visitor center constructed on Park land was indicated that it would take a lot of time for construction funds, etc. The general idea is that more and more they are putting themselves in our hands and under our direction. They no long have any desire or inclination to go it alone on anything. [2035]

Geerdes believed an important watershed had been crossed by the Park Service, that the agency had demonstrated to the Tribe that its good faith and concern could be taken seriously. To put the icing on this cake of "good feelings" between the agencies, BIA Project Engineer Westley Lucas donated 70 yards of gravel, oiled all the monument's roads and parking lots, and "built without compulsion" the access road into Pipe Spring before the month was out. [2036]

On April 7, 1970, Landscape Architects Volney Westley and Dan Wilson traveled to Zion to meet with General Superintendent Gilbert and some of his staff to discuss development issues at Pipe Spring. The two then headed to the Kaibab Indian Reservation and met with BIA and IDDA officials and Bill Tom. Jim Schaack and Gil Lusk joined them. The men discussed possible locations for developments while physically walking the grounds. Some possible development layouts were suggested. Dan Wilson was put in charge of preparing maps and proposed layouts.

120. Sketch map of proposed locations of developments, April 1970 (Pipe Spring National Monument). (click on image for an enlargement in a new window)

On April 8 and 9, 1970, Gilbert, Davis, Schaack, Westley, and Wilson met at Pipe Spring with Geerdes and discussed the preliminary joint master plan, proposed land exchange, and joint-use visitor center. The group concluded there were three alternatives related to land acquisition: 1) the Park Service could press for a land exchange; 2) acquire other than fee title through a special use permit, scenic easement, or zoning of the desired buffer area; or 3) leave the land status as it was and encourage the Indians to manage the lands for recreational purposes. The recommendation was for the Park Service to push for the land exchange. With regard to the building and siting of what was then referred to as "the Tribal Visitor Center-Museum-Crafts Sales Building," three alternatives were considered: 1) the Tribe could build a facility on their land large enough for the Park Service to lease space for its visitor center and headquarters; 2) the Park Service could build on monument land (or on to-be-acquired or controlled "buffer zone" land) and grant space to the Tribe for concessions operations; and 3) a building could be constructed partly on NPS and partly on tribal land with each agency financing its portion. Since the proposed location for the visitor center was within lands proposed for future Park Service control (between the Moccasin Road and monument in the approximate area of the Indian pond), it was recommended at this meeting that the Park Service build the facility and provide space for the Tribe. The preliminary layout is shown in figure 120.

On April 30 and May 1, 1970, Ray Geerdes and Bill Tom traveled to Tuba City, Keams Canyon, Flagstaff, and the Grand Canyon on tribal and NYC program matters. The two men were unsuccessful in getting an NYC program established expressly for the Kaibab Paiute but they kept trying. Meanwhile, Geerdes found other ways to hire tribal youth through the NYC program. [2037]

At 11 a.m. on June 2, 1970, the Kaibab Paiute Tribe held an official dedication ceremony for the tribal office building, 10 new housing units in Kaibab, and the newly paved road to Kaibab and Moccasin. [2038] Both BIA and Park Service officials attended the event. Karl T. Gilbert, Ray Geerdes, and Volney Westley represented the Park Service. [2039] It is likely that addresses by either BIA or NPS officials that day included references to the mutual benefits expected to be derived from interagency cooperation. In his letter inviting Regional Director Kowski to the dedication, Superintendent Homer M. Gilliland, Hopi Agency, acknowledged the closer relationship: "The National Park Service, the Kaibab Tribe, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs are cooperating in various projects that will benefit all agencies involved. This total involvement will continue indefinitely and will provide social and economic benefits to the Indian and non-Indian communities." [2040] Indeed, by this date the agencies were working closely on a joint community master plan that involved the development of a joint-use water system and joint-use interpretive facility. Plans for a land exchange were also continuing.

On May 28, 1970, General Superintendent Gilbert made a formal request to Tribal Chairman Bill Tom for permission to drill a test well near Two Mile Wash, under the direction of USGS staff. Should an adequate well be developed on reservation land, Gilbert wrote in his memo, "we would propose entering into a formal and documented agreement regarding the use of the well. Provisions of this agreement would reflect Indian and Park Service needs based on final outcome of possible cooperative proposals." [2041] The Tribe passed Resolution K-2-70 in favor of granting permission to drill the test well on June 17 but as the resolution had to go through the BIA's Phoenix office for signatures, word was slow getting back to Gilbert. It was late July before he learned word-of-mouth that permission had been given. [2042] On August 12 Director William L. Bowen, Western Services Center, directed the chief of its Water Resources Division to take the necessary action to drill the test well. In late September Kowski made a formal request to Secretary of the Interior Walter J. Hickel that the Park Service proceed with drilling the test well(s). The objective was to locate a well capable of producing 75 gallons per minute of water. [2043]

By mid-June 1970, the Park Service had its joint development plan, maps, and layouts ready for field review as well as a draft Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for operation and development for the Kaibab-Pipe Spring area. The Park Service had hoped to meet with BIA and tribal officials that month to go over the plan and MOU, but the earliest date convenient to all parties was July 20. On that date, a meeting was held at the new tribal office, attended by Park Service officials Karl T. Gilbert, Volney Westley, Dan Wilson, and Ray Geerdes; tribal officials Bill Tom and Ralph Castro; and BIA officials Al Purchase, Bob Orchard, and Homer G. Gilliland. Mutual concerns of water, land lease, or usage, and possible joint operation of a visitor center were discussed. [2044] Wilson and Orchard presented their respective proposed plans. [2045] In order that vistas south of the monument would remain unimpaired, the Park Service wanted there to be no developments along the main highway. The BIA plan called for all commercial development to be on the east side of the Moccasin road, with nothing located along the highway. Orchard's plan called for locating a picnic area west of the road, separate from the campground area, which was to be sited north of the tribal office. Geerdes argued for keeping the picnic area with the campground on the east side of the road. Others were in agreement. There was additional discussion about the campground, museum, and trailer park. Funds were immediately available to the Tribe to build a $6,500 trailer park. The Tribe's request for funds to build the motel had previously been turned down. The idea of a service station had also been dropped, but approved plans still were in place for additional housing and a $85,000 museum. Either BIA or tribal officials raised the question, would the Park Service be interested in leasing the Tribe's museum building as a visitor center? That was a possibility, Park Service officials responded.

Gilbert brought up the question of a land exchange at this July 20 meeting. Gilliland said he didn't think an exchange would be possible, but that land could be leased to the Park Service. [2046] Uncertain he could sell the Washington office on the idea of lease, Gilbert then asked about the possibility of a scenic easement. Discussion continued on the leasing idea. Gilliland and Tom were interested in knowing how joint plans might benefit the Tribe, particularly in the creation of new jobs. Tom was in favor of a snack bar and craft shop so that his people could continue to live and work on the reservation.

During the summer of 1970, in addition to its concern with the visual impact of tribal developments, the Park Service had concerns about a proposed transmission line south of Pipe Spring. Park Service officials were first notified about the Navajo Project's proposed line on May 13, too late to provide official comment at public meetings scheduled for May 5-7 in Las Vegas, St. George, and Kanab. Called the "Navajo-McCullough Transmission Line," it was to be located about four miles south of Pipe Spring, crossing the Arizona Strip from the Navajo Generating Station to the McCullough Switching Station. Park Service officials met with representatives of Los Angeles' Department of Water and Power on July 20 and expressed their objections to the damage to the historic and environmental scene, as visitors would view it from the monument. The intrusion of high tension lines and support towers cutting a swath across the scenic view was unacceptable, they maintained. Up to that time, Park Service officials argued, the panorama across the Arizona Strip was "practically unaltered" from the homesteading period of the late 1920s and 1930s. [2047] (Of course State Highway 389 was incongruous, but was acceptable because it brought visitors!) They suggested the company consider two alternate routes for its transmission line, one through the reservation and the other to the north, through BLM land. [2048] Company officials agreed to conduct a helicopter survey to determine if the Park Service's proposed alternate routes were feasible. Later, Gilbert was informed that the company's helicopter survey indicated that both routes proposed by the Park Service would work but that either route would be more costly than the route originally proposed. (See "The Navajo-McCullough Transmission Line" section, Part XI, for the outcome.)

Historical Research on Pipe Spring Ownership

In August 1969 Gilbert authorized Geerdes to begin research that would be useful in establishing Park Service ownership of Pipe Spring. In late August Geerdes spent several days in Kingman, Arizona (the Mohave County seat). Between September and November, he made numerous visits to record depositories in St. George (Washington County seat) and Kanab (Kane County seat). He also interviewed a number of people at Church offices and the Utah Historical Society in Salt Lake City as well as made extensive searches of their legal and historical material. Geerdes estimated he spent more than 80 hours conducting historical research before writing his report in December. [2049] Legal Assistant William L. McKeel visited the monument on December 12 and reviewed water, title, and land exchange problems. He strongly supported Geerdes' efforts to establish legitimate ownership of Pipe Spring. He also reviewed the research work Geerdes had done on the legal title to Pipe Spring. McKeel expressed his approval of Geerdes' work and expressed his opinion that the legal title would stand up in court. [2050]

One mystery that was cleared up in the course of Geerdes' research was the question posed in 1943 about the stockmen's two-acre "reserve" on Pipe Spring National Monument, raised in Part VI of this report. Geerdes discovered that the two acres was "an exact square in the southwest corner of the monument." [2051] A special use permit had been issued by the Park Service to the stockmen, valid from February 1925 to February 1926, for the purpose of their "erecting and maintaining corral and yard fences, water and feed troughs, and any other fixtures necessary for the feeding and handling of range stock." [2052] The permit was never renewed but the corral and watering troughs were used intermittently until 1956 when they were finally removed and the monument's boundary fence built out to the corner. Their long-standing use of the area may have created the impression among some of the stockmen that they either owned this piece of land or that it had been permanently set aside for their use, but neither was the case. No conflict seems to have arisen over the misunderstanding, only a certain amount of administrative confusion in later years! There still existed, however, a cattle access lane along the monument's southeast corner. Geerdes maintained there was no need for this lane anymore; he planned to eliminate it during the fall of 1969 to keep cattle outside the monument boundary. [2053]

On January 1, 1970, Geerdes submitted his 72-page narrative report with supporting documentation to General Superintendent Gilbert. Entitled "The Ownership of Pipe Spring: A Legal and Historical Brief," the report pulled together all that was known at the time regarding the ranch's past owners, including its first owner, the Church. In a few instances, Geerdes was forced to resort to some personal speculation (he wrestled in particular with the shadowy role of the Valentine scrip), but most of his conclusions appear to be based on solid documentation. (See Part I for more information on the ranch's history of ownership.) He maintained that his report "properly substantiates both the historic and legal claims of the National Park Service to Pipe Spring.... the only other legal claim on any of our water is the allotment granted to the cattlemen." [2054] In addition to the internal circulation and usefulness of this report, Geerdes gave a lecture on the history of Pipe Spring's ownership to a group of adults at the Methodist Church in Page, Arizona, in August 1970.

Nature Trail

In mid-January 1964, Bob Olsen, Hugh Bozarth, and Joe Bolander scoped out possible courses for what was then called "a historic foot trail." Of course, as recounted in earlier chapters, this scoping exercise for a nature, geological, and/or historic walking trail had been performed from time to time for over three decades, but no funds were ever available to carry out plans. Olsen wrote,

A logical route is along the stone boat trail that runs along the face of the ridge west of the buildings, then up the ridge, and back to a point somewhere near the east cabin. There is about 400 feet of the stone boat trail, which is 2 to 3 feet high. It is first recognizable 225 feet west of the fort. [2055]

121. NYC boys working on the nature trail, July 1968. Boys include Russell and Clarence Tom, Larry Stephenson, Steve Tait, and "two Navajo" — possibly Johnnie Manymule, Keith Yazzie and/or Rex Tsi. Ray Geerdes is in uniform, leaning on a shovel. (Pipe Spring National Monument).

The "stone boat trail" is also referred to in reports as the "quarry road" or "quarry trail." (Its historic use was described in Part I.) The proposed circle trail scoped out by the three men in January was given the name "Wamptun Trail." It terminated at the Powell survey monument. [2056]

On January 31, 1964, Olsen, Bozarth, and Bolander explored an area along the ridge just west of the monument boundary. Several large rocks with lines of cleavage cut in them and a large rock with three drill holes in it led the men to think that some of the rock used for the fort was quarried there. [2057] Several inscriptions were also located near this site. In March 1964 Olsen took Leonard Heaton about 500 feet west of the monument boundary to the site Bozarth discovered where there were a series of drill holes in the rock. Heaton told him the drill holes were of CCC vintage. In other words, this was the quarry site Camp DG-44 used for stone when it was needed for projects, such as to line the parking area with curbing. The CCC boys acquired quite a reputation for carving their names into historic buildings on the monument, so it is hardly surprising they also left inscriptions at their quarry site. A tentative sign plan was prepared for the nature trail in 1964. Though the trail had not been improved in any way, it appears that some visitors hiked it during the 1960s, just as Leonard Heaton had in the 1950s, at that time often accompanied by a group of boy scouts.

Nothing was done in the way of trail construction until 1968. In a cover letter for the monument's Environmental Study Area Inventory submitted to Zion in July 1968, Ray Geerdes pointed out the value of a combined historical/geological/nature trail:

Although the purpose of the trail is amply justified for interpretive purposes on a day by day basis it is ideally suited for an Environmental Education situation as it gives an excellent panorama overlooking the whole Arizona Strip country and an outstanding way to contrast the old overgrazed area with the native grass restoration projects. In addition it gives access to the Heart Canyon Petroglyphs and the Powell survey marker. [2058]

Zion officials were open to lending a hand, and Neighborhood Youth Corps enrollees afforded the monument additional labor. That May Geerdes began soliciting advice from trail foremen in area parks on building the combined history, geology, and nature trail. On July 8, 1968, Jim Schaack and Joe Davis came from Zion to inspect the proposed route for the new trail with Geerdes. On July 10 and 11 a trail crew from Zion blasted the overhangs for the trail route. A crew of NYC boys worked that month on building the trail, about one-half mile in length. Geerdes later estimated that the boys saved the Park Service $3,000 in construction costs. [2059] The first group to officially hike the newly created trail (still without signage) was a group of 30 4H girls from Fredonia on July 30. As mentioned earlier, Geerdes received permission from Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake to add a gate and way trail to connect the nature trail to the Heart Canyon petroglyph area and Powell monument. Former Custodian Leonard Heaton's recommendation for a trail, first made to Southwestern National Monuments' Superintendent Frank Pinkley in January 1934, had finally been realized.

In October 1968 the Zion Natural History Association purchased metalphoto materials for the monument to develop interpretive signage along the self-guided trail. In November 1968 Zion staff assisted Allen Malmquist with the construction of 14 metalphoto-routed interpretive signs, which were erected the same month along the trail. By July 18, 1969, Geerdes estimated over 3,000 people had used the new trail. [2060]

Interpretation

On-site Programs

The monument's overall plan during the 1960s was to give the fort a lived-in appearance, creating the impression that the 1870s inhabitants had just stepped out and would be back soon. Artifacts were evaluated with this objective in mind and either eliminated from or added to the display as needed. Tours were run on a more informal basis with guides sometimes excusing themselves to begin a new tour or combining groups mid-tour on busy days. (On such occasions, guides were "roving interpreters," in Olsen's words.) In February 1964 a Cousino message repeater was installed in the fort courtyard; it gave the visitor a two-minute introduction. The message repeater told the story of Mormon colonization and described the role of Pipe Spring in that history. The older Mohawk message repeater in the telegraph room told the story of the opening of the Deseret Telegraph Company's station at Pipe Spring. (A Cousino repeater replaced it in 1965.) Touching the telegraph key activated it. The repeaters were helpful, reported Bozarth, "especially on crowded days." [2061] The two-minute message in the courtyard, however, was thought to be too long as visitors walked away before it finished. A telegraph key and sounder were obtained from Mountain States Telegraph and Telephone in 1964 to be used in the reconstructed Deseret Telegraph Office.

In late August 1964, Robert Barrell of the regional office and Chief of Interpretation William C. Everhart (Washington office) visited the fort and made recommendations for improving the interpretive program. Everhart objected to the use of electric lights in the fort, but because this was a controversial issue they continued to be used. On occasion, especially if the day was sunny and rooms were well-lit, staff would turn them off for sometimes visitors too complained about them.

During the spring and early summer of 1964, the 100-year-old pioneer loom was restrung by Olsen and made ready for demonstration use that August. The loom and weaving exhibit was located first in one of the fort rooms, but in May 1965 it was moved to the courtyard and set up beneath the north porch. (Staff wanted to create a photo gallery of "old-time pioneers" connected to the fort in the room vacated.) The first rug woven on it was completed in December 1965. [2062] In 1965 a hand lathe, mortising machine, forge blower, and cheese press were added to demonstrations. When time allowed, guides demonstrated all these contraptions, or at least those that visitors showed an interest in. In the summer of 1966, Olsen put the old forge into working order so it too could be used for demonstrations. Demonstrations that year also included woodworking and rug making. Bozarth reported that older visitors took special delight in personally demonstrating to their friends and families how the loom worked. At some point during 1966 (probably after the summer season had ended), the 100-year-old loom was taken out of service temporarily so it could be worked on. Once repaired, it took Olsen and Bolander an entire season just to restring the loom with warp threads.

During 1967 over 8,000 conducted tours of the fort were given. Demonstrations were offered on the loom, hand lathe, and mortising machine. Paul C. Heaton was the primary guide that summer. Tours were still given on a rather informal level with no set times or schedule. By the end of the travel season, Bozarth was toying with the idea of putting tours on an organized schedule, but he left the monument in September so no change was made that year.

Beginning in 1968, the monument's interpretive program benefited from federally funded job training programs, described earlier. Adult volunteers from the community also were added to the interpretive program on weekends, beginning in the summer of 1969. The monument's use of demonstrations was greatly expanded at that time. (See earlier "Monument Administration" and "Nature Trail" sections.) The fort was the still main interpretive facility (as it had always been) but costumed guides were a novelty and took the administration one step closer to creating the "lived-in" feeling it strove for. Geerdes imagined the courtyard of the fort, with benches set around its interior perimeter, as an outdoor classroom. Benches were already located near the fort entrance; Geerdes suggested that others could be similarly arranged for visitor use.

The construction of the combined nature trail during the summer of 1968 also expanded possibilities for interpretation. While the trail was self-guided, its signage and the scenic panorama atop the Vermillion Cliffs enhanced the visitor's awareness of the area's environment, particularly its geology and topography. Geerdes thought the larger area presented the ideal opportunity for communicating conservation values to the public. From his perspective, the Pueblo ruins below the monument's southern boundary and the Heart Canyon petroglyphs northeast of the fort attested to the importance of the natural springs in human history. The fort and cabins bespoke of the Mormon settlers' ability to adapt to the rugged environment and to exploit its grasses to feed cattle. The effects of overgrazing were readily apparent as one looked out over the desert and would be made even more so once the native grass restoration plan was realized. Then, visitors would be able to better visualize what the landscape looked like before the arrival of Euroamericans and vast numbers of cattle.

During the summer of 1969, the monument's interpretive program was evaluated under Park Service Program Standards for Interpretation and Visitor Services. It was noted that the area did not have a completed interpretive prospectus and had never had one. [2063] It was estimated that to raise the monument's program to an acceptable standard two positions need to be filled (a permanent, GS-3 information receptionist and a GS-4 temporary interpretive guide) and additional equipment purchased at a cost of $12,687. To raise the program to optimum standards, the monument needed to hire (in addition to the above) both a permanent GS-7 historian and a temporary GS-3 information receptionist, at an added cost of $9,741. [2064] While none of these permanent positions was filled prior to Geerdes' departure in the fall of 1970, he did gain the clerical services of Park Aid Konda Button in the fall of 1969 and was able to hire Tony Heaton as a second seasonal historian during the summer of 1970.

Off-site Programs

In 1964 monument staff contacted 1,819 people, presenting programs to the Boy Scouts of America, church and school groups (Moccasin, Fredonia, Alton, Glendale, Orderville, Colorado City); Kanab Firemen; Fredonia Women's Club; Kanab Civic Ladies Club; and Kanab Lions Club. Programs consisted of slide shows of National Park Service sites or films, most of which were from the "What's New" series narrated by Chief of Interpretation William C. Everhart.

In 1965, 882 people were contacted in off-site talks to 15 groups in Kanab, Orderville, Fredonia, Moccasin, Colorado City, and Mt. Trumball. That year Olsen presented a program to Fredonia school children on the Paiute Indians, letting the children grind corn with manos and metates from the monument's collection. At the request of Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake, in June 1965 Bob Olsen presented a slide program on Park Service careers to 10 Indian participants in the Neighborhood Youth Corps at the Indian Branch Chapel of the LDS Church. The monument acquired a movie projector from Zion in late 1965, which was used later in off-site programs.

Off-site talks were given to 14 groups (675 people) in 1966. Olsen or Bozarth visited schools, civic, and church groups. Community programs were taken to Orderville, Kanab, Hilldale, Fredonia, Moccasin, Colorado City, Mt. Trumbull, and Tuweep. The program was particularly well attended at Mt. Trumbull, a very remote settlement that few outsiders, let alone "entertainment," ever came to. Bozarth reported the whole town (95 people) turned out for his four-hour program. In the previous year, Bozarth flew his own plane 90 miles to the settlement to show films to the community, and presumably he continued to do this for succeeding years. Also this year, Zion's Park Naturalist Allan Hagood gave several geology talks to school classes in the Pipe Spring area.

Off-site programs during 1967 included a program at Mt. Trumbull. This time Bozarth was accompanied by Zion's Park Naturalist Barbara Lund who presented slides of Saguaro National Monument and sound recordings of Zion National Park's toads. Thirty-five people turned out for that year's event. Other outreach programs were given to the Kanab Ladies Civic Club and the St. George Chamber of Commerce.

General Historical Research and Publications

The historical handbook for Pipe Spring (in preparation since Lloyd Sandberg began work on it in 1956) was ready for publication in 1964 but cuts in the printing fund delayed publication for two more years. That year, Park Historian Bob Olsen provided additional review and corrections based on his research during his tenure. In 1966 it was finally published as part of the Park Service's Historical Handbook Series with James McKown and Robert M. Utley listed as authors. According to Olsen, this was the first publication that told the whole Pipe Spring story.

Olsen continued being very active through his tenure in researching a number of topics related to Pipe Spring's history. He was particularly interested in John Wesley Powell's survey of the area and gathered quite a bit of data concerning it. Another area of research for Olsen in 1964 and 1965 was the domestic and wild plants that would have been at Pipe Spring historically. He also spent a great deal of time reviewing the company records of those companies that managed the Church's tithed herds and even offered several public programs on those records. As the interpretive program geared up to include demonstrations, his research efforts included personal interviews with old-timers to learn how certain artifacts were used. He searched diligently during this period for documentary proof of the legend associated with the naming of Pipe Spring, but was unable to find such evidence. Many of Olsen's monthly narrative reports to Bozarth contain a wealth of information about specific research efforts.

In March 1963 Olsen visited the Utah Historical Society and found materials there on the Whitmore-McIntyre incident. Olsen made another research visit to Dixie College in St. George, Utah, in late January 1964 to review the minutes of the Canaan Cooperative Cattle Company. He was also able to meet with Professor A. Karl Larson and to make arrangements for the microfilming the Winsor Stock Growing Company's Ledger B. [2065] That month, at his own expense, he ordered a microfilm copy of the diary of F. S. Dellenbaugh from the New York Public Library. (This was the only extant diary of the 1871-1872 Powell Survey not published by the Utah Historical Quarterly.) An 1872 sketch of the fort's floor plan was located in the diary of Frederick S. Dellenbaugh. [2066] In March Olsen continued his research at the University of Utah and the Utah Historical Society.

In the spring of 1964, Ledger B of the Winsor Castle Stock Growing Company and the Canaan Cooperative meeting minutes were microfilmed at the expense of the Zion Natural History Association. This documentation provided a record of the owners of Pipe Spring from 1873 to 1879 and a partial list from 1879 to 1883. Olsen gave a presentation on the Winsor Ledger B microfilm on May 6 at the request of Mrs. Carlos Judd. The program was given in the fort's spring room and was attended by 20 people from Fredonia, Kanab, and Orderville, most of whom were interested in genealogical research. A similar presentation of the Canaan Cooperative's microfilmed minutes was held on July 10, 1964, for another 20 people from Kanab.

In September 1963 a contract was negotiated between the Park Service's Southwest Regional Office and Professor C. Gregory Crampton (Department of History, University of Utah) to prepare a narrative history of Mormon colonization in and around the national parks and monuments of southern Utah and adjacent Nevada and northern Arizona. It was expected that his report would aid in developing the interpretive programs of park sites. Crampton conducted most of his research in the summer and early fall of 1964, visiting the park areas within his study area. He made visits to Pipe Spring on September 11, 18, and 19. Crampton was particularly interested in the Deseret Telegraph Company's line and the old road trace west of the monument. He returned to Pipe Spring on July 12, 1965. Crampton's report, "Mormon Colonization in Utah and Adjacent Parts of Arizona and Nevada, 1851-1900," was completed during 1965. Crampton returned again to Pipe Spring on August 28, 1966, and spent the day with Olsen.

As part of the monument's research efforts, Bozarth and Olsen met with Utah historian Juanita Brooks for two hours on October 20, 1964. They were hoping to track down the Winsor Castle Stock Growing Company's Ledger A, but she knew nothing about it. (Ledger A could not be located that year or the next. Winsor family members thought it might have been lost in a house fire.) In reference to their questions about the origin of the Pipe Spring name, Brooks told them she didn't think any men in Hamblin's 1858 expedition kept diaries. She suggested several other research paths for Olsen to follow. Olsen was very thorough not only in searching through archival depositories but also in writing to more distant archival sources for information, such as the Huntington Library in San Merino, California, and the Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley.

In 1965 an article written by Olsen was published in The Journal of Arizona History, entitled "Pipe Spring, Arizona, and Thereabouts." [2067] (After the article appeared, Olsen reported to Bozarth that revisions had been made by someone at which time erroneous information was added before the article's publication.) That year Olsen made visits to the Utah Historical Society and the Church historian's office in Salt Lake City to research military records. Also in 1965, Olsen conducted a taped interview with Leonard Heaton. [2068] In February 1965 he interviewed Andrew J. Alger, grandson of Charles Pulsipher, the man who succeeded Anson P. Winsor as the Pipe Spring ranch's superintendent. In March he interviewed Lucy Chamberlain Esplin of Cedar City, Utah, daughter of Thomas and Ann Chamberlain of Orderville, Utah. From late 1965 to early 1966, Olsen was "loaned" for a while to Capitol Reef National Monument (made a park in 1971) to research the history of the Fruita schoolhouse for a Historic Structures Report.

In May 1966 Olsen interviewed 81-year-old Mrs. Edward Nisson of Washington, Utah, while she visited the monument. She was the daughter of Woodruff and Martha Alexander, who, she told Olsen, were early owners of Moccasin Spring in the 1860s. [2069] During 1966 Olsen wrote two more articles for journal publication, "Winsor Castle: Mormon Frontier Fort at Pipe Spring," Utah Historical Quarterly, Vol. 34, No. 3; and "Conflict in the Arizona Strip: The First Skirmish of the 1865-69 Mormon-Navajo War," in the West Coast Archeological Society Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 1. An article by him also appeared in the Salt Lake Tribune on May 29, 1966. Olsen was also quite active in preparing almost monthly press releases to newspapers to increase people's awareness of the monument.

In the fall of 1968, Ray Geerdes and Allen Malmquist conducted research on Pipe Spring and on the old Mormon Wagon Road. (See Part I. In the vicinity of Pipe Spring, the road was called the "Kaibab Wagon Road," probably after the reservation was set aside.) In October Malmquist spent a day doing research on Pipe Spring in the Church historian's office in Salt Lake City. Geerdes also did some research in the Church historian's office in November. He took with him a letter of introduction from Bishop Owen Johnson of Moccasin that he later reported was "very helpful." On November 19 Geerdes had a three-hour interview with author Juanita Brooks in St. George, discussing the history of Pipe Spring and Lee's Ferry. A few days later he and Allen Malmquist drove to the old town site of Paria and to Lee's Ferry (Glen Canyon National Recreation Area) where they explored the road up "Lee's backbone" on foot. (This is an extremely rugged wagon road across the river from Lee's Ferry on the Navajo Reservation.) The two men also visited House Rock Valley and returned to Pipe Spring via Kaibab National Forest and the Buckskin Mountain. In December Geerdes conducted two hour-long interviews with Juanita Brooks about the history and location of the main road as well as associated routes.

The Arizona portion of the route is depicted on State Historian James H. McClintock's map depicting "early agricultural settlement and roads made and traveled by colonists and Mormon Battalion route;" a copy of this map is included in Part I of this report (see figure 5). Geerdes and Malmquist were interested in researching the pioneer road system because it was important under a number of historical themes. It was used to carry out Mormon missionary work among the Hopi and the Navajo ca. 1858; it was important in military operations during the Navajo campaign of 1863-1865; it facilitated the beginning of immigration to Arizona (ca. 1875-1880); and it led to the establishment of normal communication and supply routes in the areas it passed through. It was nicknamed the "Honeymoon Trail" for its use by young Mormon couples in Arizona settlements who wished to have their marriages "sealed" at the St. George Temple. Geerdes learned from Brooks that the trail passed through St. George and up the Dugway from Rockville to Pipe Spring and on to Lee's Ferry. He was excited by the idea that Pipe Spring National Monument and Lee's Ferry, also a Park Service site, were historically linked by the road.

Geerdes spoke with BLM officials on whose land much of the road was located about erecting interpretive signage along the old Kaibab Wagon Road. (The route also crossed Kaibab National Forest and entered the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area. Below the Colorado River the road entered the Navajo Reservation, but it does not appear that there were plans to erect signs on the reservation.) In June 1969 an interagency agreement was reached between the BLM, Arizona Strip District Office, and Ray Geerdes (representing the National Park Service) on an interpretive program for Arizona pioneer roads between St. George, Utah, and Lee's Ferry, Arizona. The BLM agreed to participate in on-the-ground research, construct the necessary signs, include Arizona pioneer trails on their visitor map, prepare and publish a stenciled handout describing the trails, and program a formal printed publication scheduled for distribution after the signs were installed. For its part the Park Service was to conduct historical research, prepare a map of the routes to be interpreted, propose a design for signage for major road crossings and public contact points, install the completed signs using NYC labor, provide horses for doing on-the-ground research and trail identification, and propose wording for a handout describing the trails and their history. [2070]

In late 1969 Geerdes also conducted research on the ownership of Pipe Spring in connection with tribal developments. (See earlier "Historical Research on Pipe Spring Ownership" section.) In January 1970 Geerdes interviewed the daughter of Edwin D. Woolley, Jr., Elizabeth Woolley Jensen, in Logan, Utah. He reported "an original manuscript on Pipe Spring was obtained from Mrs. Jensen containing much valuable information." [2071] (At that time Jensen also donated an Indian artifact to the museum collection Geerdes referred to as a "konunk.") Geerdes returned the manuscript to Jensen by mail in late April, urging her to have it published.

Visitation

Travel figures for the monument dropped at the beginning of this period, from 17,138 in 1963 to 14,312 in 1964. (The reason for the sudden drop in numbers is not apparent.) In 1965, 1966, and 1967, visitation increased very little: 15,597, 16,181, and 16,895 respectively. From early 1965 until mid-1967, construction was taking place on State Highway 389. Two events contributed to a jump in increase for 1968 and 1969, when 21,539 and 27, 232 visitors came to the monument, respectively. [2072] The opening of State Highway 389 during the summer of 1967 was the first factor that had a positive impact. The other factor was the popularity of the new "living ranch" theme carried out first by costumed guides and then supplemented by community volunteers. As described earlier, these programs were initiated by Geerdes in 1968 and were expanded during 1969 (see "Monument Administration" section). It is impossible to know which of the two changes resulted in the most increase, improved roads or improved interpretive programs. Geerdes was convinced the latter deserved the credit. Both certainly played a role, as well as the increased publicity the monument received in association with its new programs. It is worth noting, however, that visitation to Zion and Bryce Canyon also reflected a significant increase for 1969.

Visitation to Pipe Spring over the Easter weekends between 1964 and 1970 fluctuated over the years, often dependent upon the weather. The monument received only one-half its customary attendance during the 1964 Easter weekend. Visitation picked up again for the 1965 Easter holiday to about 1,100 people, comparable to earlier years. The attendance for the 1966 weekend is unknown as Bob Olsen was away for training in March and April and filed no reports for those months. In his absence, Hugh Bozarth and Joe Bolander served as guides during that year's Easter weekend. A cool Easter weekend in March 1967 brought about 300 visitors per day, an unusually low number for the holiday. No report was made on Easter visitation during 1968. Geerdes reported 1,200 visitors came to Pipe Spring for the Easter weekend of 1969.

On May 17, 1964, 30 University of Utah students and faculty visited Pipe Spring National Monument on a biology field trip. On June 4, 1964, 136 girls from the St. George Stake toured the building and picnicked at the monument with their Church group. On June 17, 1964, 45 students and faculty members from San Diego State College on a geology field trip toured and camped on the monument. Also that month 40 members of the Clark County Gem Club (Nevada) camped at the monument. On August 23 Mrs. Louise L. Udall (Secretary of the Interior Stewart L. Udall's mother) visited the fort with relatives. Her party was on its way to the dedication of the Jacob Hamblin house in Santa Clara, Utah. Other relatives of the Udall, Lee, and Hamblin families visited that morning. A group of 75 Sons of Utah Pioneers made a quick 20-minute stop to see the monument in September 1964. In 1964 Establishment Day (May 30) was advertised by press release, but resulted in a poor turnout. Bozarth opined this was because the weekend coincided with the annual opening of Utah's fishing season. There are no reports of this event being held at the monument in 1965 and 1966.

Groups visiting the monument during 1965 included the Cedar City chapter of the Utah Historical Society; the Dons Club of Phoenix; a senior citizens group from the Los Angeles area; a group of boys from the Aaronic Priesthood in St. George and Panguitch; student groups from the College of Southern Utah and San Diego State College; and the usual field trips made by area elementary and high schools and boy scout troops. Visitors that year with family connections to the site included Rella Hamblin Lee of Downey, California, and Grace Hamblin De Armen of St. George, Utah (daughter and granddaughter of Jacob Hamblin, respectively), and Mr. and Mrs. Erastus Dilworth Woolley of Manti, Utah (Mr. Woolley was the son of Edwin D. Woolley, Jr.). Both visited in October 1965; Olsen took the opportunity to pump Dilworth Woolley for historical information. [2073]

A noticeable increase in the number of Church groups came to the monument in 1966. In May testimonial services were held at Pipe Spring by a group of 30 home missionaries from the Kanab Stake. Also that month 90 Church seminary students from the San Fernando Valley, California, visited in addition to 130 members of the Aaronic Priesthood. Other groups visiting in 1966 included boy scout troops, students from Brigham Young University and Dixie College, the Dons Club of Phoenix, the Las Vegas Sierra Club, the 4H Club, the Utah Pioneer Sons and Daughters (from Kane and Washington counties), a group from the Miracle Rest Home of St. George, and members of the Sevier County chapter of the Utah Historical Society. In November 1966 Lloyd Sandberg (past park historian) returned to the monument to lead a group of 25 teachers on a tour.

Groups that visited the monument in 1967 included the boy scouts (including 80 from Belgium and Luxembourg and a carload from England), various school groups, members of the Dons Club, of Napa Valley Tours (California), the Daughters of Utah Pioneers (including Kate B. Carter, author of Treasures of Pioneer History and Our Pioneer Heritage), and trainees from the Albright Training Center. Several campfire talks were given to large father-son groups camping at the monument, one from St. George and the other from Cedar City. During the time the St. George group was at the fort, 17 of the boys were discovered one evening going over the fort's walls into the locked fort. Monument staff held them inside until the camping leader arrived to reclaim them. During the visit by the Cedar City group, three boys were caught climbing the fort walls into the locked fort. On both occasions, this was accomplished without the aid of the lightning protection system cables, which had been moved inside the fort. Bozarth consoled himself with the thought that "such abuse" would cease once camping was no longer allowed at the monument. [2074]

One of the monument's visitors during the summer of 1967 was Donald D. Dodd, the Army's commanding officer at Pipe Spring's Camp DG-44 in 1938 and 1939. He returned after nearly 30 years to see the monument and site of the old CCC camp. He was not the only man associated with the camp who returned. [2075] From time to time, other past enrollees returned and made known to the staff that they had worked with the CCC at Pipe Spring. (The camp's Chief Clerk Jack Harden not only returned to Pipe Spring but also volunteered several seasons to work at the monument during the 1990s. He donated his collection of photographs, taken at Pipe Spring during the late 1930s.) Other important guests who visited the monument in August 1967 include Governor and Mrs. Jack Williams and Fredonia's Mayor Warren Dart Judd and his wife Olive, mentioned earlier.

In 1968, in addition to boy scout troops and elementary and high school groups, students from the University of Utah (accompanied by Dr. Gregory Crampton), College of Southern Utah, Dixie College, Brigham Young University, and Baylor University visited the monument. Other groups included Park Service trainees from the Albright Training Center, a group with Golden Circle Tours (Long Beach, California), Leisure World Tours (Los Angeles), the Dons Club (Phoenix), the Daughters of Utah Pioneers (Salt Lake City), the Sierra Club (Las Vegas), and Kanab's First Baptist Church. Individual visitors in 1968 with historical links to the site included P. W. Duffing of Caliente, Nevada, who had worked as a cowboy for B. F. Saunders (prior owner of Pipe Springs); and Mrs. Latimer of Washington, Utah, granddaughter of Dr. James Whitmore. [2076]

On July 20, 1968, two National Geographic Society officials visited the monument as part of a John Wesley Powell Centennial survey. In September 1968 Sterling McMurrin, Dean of the Graduate School of University of Utah and personal friend of Secretary of the Interior Steward L. Udall, visited the monument and later wrote a letter to Udall encouraging him to visit Pipe Spring. During October of that year, the monument was visited by two USGS officials, Tad Nichols (official photographer for the USGS motion picture on John W. Powell's trip through the Grand Canyon) and Dr. Edwin D. McKee (Western representative of the Powell Centennial).

After 1968, Ray Geerdes rarely reported visits by individual groups to the monument although their numbers were included in travel figures. It is notable, however, that in March 1969 a group of members from the Utah State Legislature visited the monument, accompanied by their families and newsmen from Salt Lake City.

Reunions

The Brown family held a reunion on August 1, 1964, with 70 attending. On July 2-4, 1965, the A. P. Winsor family held its family gathering, attended by 99 people. The Winsor family donated a piece of hand-worked table linen made while the Winsors lived in Provo, Utah, in the 1850s and used while they were at Pipe Spring. They also donated a child's pink dress made by Mrs. A. P. Winsor, Jr. [2077] On June 24-26, 1966, the Butler family held a reunion at the monument, attended by 21 family members. On November 23, 1967, the Heaton family of Moccasin held a Thanksgiving outing at the monument, attended by 40 people.

Historic Buildings

The Fort

In January 1965 a handrail was installed on the interior stairway leading from the kitchen to the upper story of the fort. This was done as a safety measure. During the summer some plaster work on the fort's interior was repaired under contract. Other than routine maintenance, no other work on the fort was undertaken until the fall of 1969.

Between April 30 and May 1, 1969, Chief Architect Charles S. Pope (Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, Branch of Restorations) inspected the monument. He met first with Ray Geerdes and Zion's Joe Davis. Pope also met with former Custodian Leonard Heaton who provided information on "hidden" work that had been done in the fort and on early decisions made regarding the fort. Pope also visited Bishop Owen Johnson of Moccasin, apparently for the purpose of tracking down historic photographs that might be in Church archives on Pipe Spring or on Lee's Ferry. (Owen Johnson's father and family lived at Lonely Dell Ranch and operated Lee's Ferry for 15 years. [2078] ) Pope commended Geerdes' transformation of Pipe Spring into a "living ranch," accomplished with NYC personnel and "a very minimal expenditure of funds." He discussed five problems the monument faced with regard to its historic structures: 1) provisions needed to be made for heating the fort during the winter; 2) the problem of dampness under the parlor needed to be addressed (northwest room of the north building, first floor); 3) efflorescence in the fort's stone walls at various places needed suppressing; 4) lighting of the fort needed more study; and 5) historic values of the three historic buildings needed to be maintained. [2079]

With regard to heating the fort, Pope recommended that forced-air electric wall heating radiators be installed, suggesting the forced circulation of air would aid in combating dampness. A new electrical wiring system was needed. Pope cut a hole in the floor of the parlor to study moisture problems and recorded humidity and moisture content of the wooden structures in the room. He recommended installing underfloor blowers with heat under the parlor and kitchen to address moisture. Regarding the efflorescence problem, Pope described it as "more unsightly than dangerous," but urged that an intensive investigation for waterproofing the west corner of the fort be made. [2080] He also noted dampness on the northwest walls, which were against earth fill. With regard to lighting (although the spotlights didn't seem to unduly bother him), Pope recommended more study.

Karl T. Gilbert, Jim Schaack, and Ray Geerdes discussed Pope's recommendations. Gilbert sent Regional Director Kowski comments on them in early 1970. The men objected to the electric wall-heaters that Pope recommended for the fort as they viewed them as incompatible with the historic atmosphere. Rather, they preferred the use of concealed baseboard heaters and installation of radiant heating elements in old wood heaters and the wood stove. They had no problems with the use of underfloor blowers, if utilized before and after visiting hours. With regard to lighting, electrifying kerosene lamps or other antique lamp fixtures was the preferred option. A work order for these improvements was submitted to the regional office, along with these comments. [2081]

During heavy rains in late August and early September 1969, a number of leaks in the fort roof were noticed. During October 1969, a contract was awarded to Dixie Lumber and Hardware of St. George to reshingle the fort with hand-split shakes. Work began on October 27 and was completed in early November.

The East and West Cabins

In May 1964 the roof of the west cabin was cemented (in place of mud) to better withstand strong winds. During the spring of 1965, more earth was applied to the roofs of both buildings to replace dirt washed away by rain. During March 1966, earth was again added to the roofs of the cabins to prepare for a stabilization treatment. On April 1 regional office Architect A. Norman Harp applied 100 gallons of a synthetic resin called "Pencapsula" to the earth roofs of the cabins. While some of the earth washed off the roofs, water did not soak through them. This offered far better protection to the cabins and artifacts exhibited in them.

The next mention of the cabins needing more than routine attention was made during the winter of 1968-1969. Heavy snow that winter aggravated erosion problems on the roofs of the cabins, which Ray Geerdes reported to regional office staff as "storm damage." He advised that the roofs be completely rebuilt during the summer of 1969, using NYC labor force to significantly reduce expenses. Work on the project began in July, with about 600 cedar posts gathered from the Johnson Canyon area, with BLM permission. [2082] Mel Heaton and David Johnson oversaw and worked with a NYC crew of 10 Navajo boys to cut, trim, and haul the logs to Pipe Spring. The group camped four nights in the canyon while cutting and trimming the logs. VISTA volunteers from Fredonia contributed $50 for the boys' food during their overnights. Work rebuilding the west cabin roof began in late August 1969, with the crew of boys doing most of the work. The cabin's roof was entirely removed and the poles were replaced with new cedar poles and coated with tar. A material called "Plomose Aggregate" was placed on top of the pole structure. Finally, a layer of Chinle clay was added to the roof. Geerdes reported the resulting structure was completely waterproof. [2083] Seasonal laborer Mel Heaton oversaw the roof project. Work on the east cabin's roof was temporarily postponed when Heaton had to be terminated for two pay periods in order to comply with personnel rules.

In March 1970 Jim Schaack recommended to Karl Gilbert that a burglar alarm be installed in the east cabin to guard the multitude of loose articles displayed there, but it is unknown if any action was taken.

Other Historic Resources

In early 1969 Ray Geerdes garnered Superintendent Hamilton's support for four restoration projects at Pipe Spring. The projects included the restoration of the Whitmore-McIntyre dugout, the rebuilding of the historic lime kiln, an expansion of the corral by the east cabin at its north side, and the reconstruction of the historic "outhouse" near the wall adjacent to the northeast entrance of the fort. Total cost for these projects was estimated to be $10,000. Hamilton endorsed and forwarded the proposal to Kowski in May. The lime kiln and dugout restorations were never carried out, however.

Residences, Utility Area, and Walkways

Work performed in the Park Service residences was generally routine maintenance. Some storage cabinets were installed in the laundry rooms and new rain gutters and downspouts were added during the winter of 1966-1967.

During the summer of 1964, a number of walkways were rerouted around the fort. Steps along one walkway that led to the fort were converted to a ramp. The old walkways, where replaced by new ones, were obliterated. At the same time the plaque describing the Whitmore-McIntyre dugout was relocated. All of this was completed by the end of September 1964. In October of that year, a new asphalt walkway was built to the east cabin. In late 1966 trees were transplanted along walkways to give shade and delineation to the paths.

Sewage System

In July 1964 a report of contaminated culinary water at Pipe Spring triggered an inspection by a Public Health Service sanitary engineer. [2084] He noticed a pond forming on the surface over the sewer leach field distribution box in July and pointed out the leach field needed attention. His later report stated that its immediate repair or replacement was imperative. [2085] By late July Bozarth knew a new leach field had to be constructed. He also knew from talking to former Custodian Leonard Heaton that skeletons had been found earlier at the monument's southwest corner, so he asked the regional office for copies of any archeological survey work done on the monument. Regional office staff assured him there would be little if any archeological material within the monument, that such material was located further south. They advised him to just keep a careful watch during excavation work. (From his talks with Leonard Heaton, Bozarth knew they were mistaken.)

Drinking water samples tested pure in August 1964. That month a sewer lagoon was built to temporarily take the place of a leach field. Park Engineer Joe McCabe made a water seepage soil test in September to help in planning for a replacement leach field. While leach field trenches were being dug the following month, a backhoe tore into the stockmen's four-inch pipeline. The holes were patched with strips of tire inner tube and wire and the leach line was installed close by the patched pipe. [2086] The sewer leach field was replaced in October 1964. Fortunately, no human remains were encountered during the excavation for the new field. [2087]

Ponds, Fish, and Fowl

The Fort Ponds

The fort ponds were drained and cleaned in May 1964. Algae and pondweed were a problem that Hugh Bozarth fought to control during his tenure, but the fact that the Kaibab Paiute Tribe was also a user of pond water was a factor when treatment options were considered. During the summer of 1965, the pondweed was removed from the ponds without draining them. Utah State University experts identified the pondweed as a species of green algae called Chara. Bozarth continued to search for a herbicide that could be used to reduce the Chara while having no harmful effects to livestock, fish, or trees bordering the ponds. The fort ponds were again drained, cleaned of pondweed, and refilled in June 1967. They were drained again over the winter of 1967-1968, treated with a chemical to retard pondweed growth, and refilled.

The Meadow and the Meadow Pond

Under Bozarth's administration, the meadow was mowed by local neighbors in exchange for the hay. The meadow was often used for large gatherings such as community barbecues and family reunions. On a few occasions, it was even used for overflow camping. No reports of swimming occur during the 1960s, although a diving board was still in place at the meadow pond. In July 1967 (as mentioned earlier in this chapter), the meadow pond was filled in with dirt. No documentation has been located that provides insight into how the management decision to drain the pond was made. It is most likely that liability concerns about public swimming were at play rather than issues related to water use since the pond was supplied from tunnel spring, the stockmen's primary water source of water. At the time the pond was drained, it was planned for the area to be replanted and used as a group picnic area. Prior to and at the time of its draining, the meadow pond was a lush area with many shade trees surrounding the pond. Eventually, with the pond gone, the trees all died. [2088]

Fish

In April 1964 Bozarth reported "rainbow trout appear as numerous and healthy as can be expected." [2089] When the ponds were cleaned in May, the fish were somehow disposed of, for none were found in the ponds during a June inspection. Bozarth reported in June 1964 that he was investigating what kind of fish were historically appropriate for the fort ponds, and several sources indicated carp. (The practice of stocking the pond with trout appears to have been initiated by Leonard Heaton after the monument was established.) This information, however, didn't seem to stop trout stocking when they became available. In late 1967 Acting Management Assistant Jim Harter contacted the Federal Fish Hatchery in Albuquerque about obtaining some fish for the fort ponds, but no response has been located. In March 1968 the monument received a donation of 22 rainbow trout for the fort ponds from an unnamed source. Finally, in late June 1968 two seventh grade boys, Clifford Geerdes and Ben Young, captured 25 good-sized carp and released them into the fort ponds, much to Ray Geerdes' delight. He reported to headquarters, "After prodigious official and unofficial efforts to solve this problem, the historic carp are back at Pipe Spring. This should also keep the algae growth down." [2090]

Fowl

The number of domestic ducks in the fort ponds frequently fluctuated during the 1960s. Ducks and their nests of eggs were annually lost to wild cats. The monument had three ducks in June 1964. In 1966 Hugh Bozarth continued to maintain a few ducks "to give a little farm type life to the historic scene." [2091] It appears that more often than not, local people donated ducks whenever the monument's supply ran low. In December 1966, for example, Fred Smith of Toquerville, Utah, donated five ducks; in May 1968 the Junior Tait family of Fredonia donated two ducks. In November that year, Ray Geerdes picked up eight domesticated mallard ducks donated by someone in Boulder, Utah. During the summer of 1970, seven baby ducks hatched at Pipe Spring. Chickens were probably reintroduced to the monument some time soon after the donation of a chicken coop by Tony Heaton in March 1969. As mentioned earlier, geese were added either in 1969 or 1970, under Geerdes' administration.

Flood Diversion, Irrigation, and Pipelines

As in previous years, every few years or so either the Tribe's or the stockmen's pipelines would get clogged with roots or leaves and require cleaning out. The stockmen's pipeline was in poor condition when Bozarth inspected it in February 1964. The line showed leaks and lack of maintenance. In February 1965 the stockmen asked the Bureau of Land Management to replace the old rusted-out pipeline that conveyed water from Pipe Spring to their grazing leases three to four miles south of the monument. They informed Bozarth in July that a replacement water line was planned, but because the stockmen disagreed among themselves, nothing was done that summer. Bozarth thought the trouble was that the stockmen were unwilling to foot the bill, wanting the new pipeline to be paid for by a government agency (in this case, either the BIA or NPS). In January 1966 Hopi Agency surveyors staked the route for the replacement pipeline. In March a new two-inch plastic pipeline was installed across the monument to take the place of the stockmen's old line. The old line wasn't removed on the monument, rather the smaller plastic pipe was pushed through the larger old line. Once on the reservation, a 1.5-inch line was laid three feet deep; stockmen installed the two-mile line in two days.

Some measures were taken during the 1960s to prevent future flooding at the monument, since the 56-inch drainage culvert had proved inadequate. A new culvert was installed in April 1964. Ray Mose added ornamental rockwork to hold soil behind the culvert wings. In June 1965 Mose built a rock wall about 30 feet long (to hold run-off water to its channel in the main wash), which also improved the look of the culvert wings.

Floods

On August 30, 1969, heavy rain caused flooding, resulting in damages on the monument. The area around the visitor contact station and comfort station was flooded. Emergency funds were made available to have the storm damages repaired under contract in October. The 58 x 26-inch culvert pipe was placed, the drainage channel widened, and flood debris was cleaned up. [2092] A similar problem, but less severe, was experienced in early September.

122. Visitor contact station after a flood, August 1969 (Pipe Spring National Monument).

Museum Collection

In October 1964 Olsen inventoried the museum's collection of 1,500 artifacts. Olsen treated leather items in the fort with neatsfoot oil that year as well as treated metal items for rust and wood items for rot. An exhibit plan was submitted to Superintendent Oberhansley for approval in March 1964. During 1965 several artifacts were removed from display and newly acquired pieces were added.

In 1965 the monument acquired by donation an old 1860s-era anvil from Reed Beebe. In April of that year, roadwork near Two Mile Wash Bridge, located two miles east of the monument, bulldozed a rock cairn. Inside the cairn was a hand-made rusted wagon clevis. [2093] The clevis was added to the monument's collection; its age was estimated to be 1872 or later as that was when the old roadway it was found along was first used. In April 1965 Regional Curator Franklin Smith and Museum Specialist Richard Anderson (Western Museum Laboratory) visited the monument and advised Olsen on cleaning and preservation work needed for some of its collections. Rella Hamblin Lee and Grace Hamblin De Armen presented a picture of Jacob Hamblin to the monument during their visit in October 1965. (See earlier "Reunions" section for additional references to donations.)

In February 1964 Bozarth reported at a Zion staff meeting that he needed storage for some of the monument's collection. He planned to crate up some of the unused items and bring them to Zion for temporary storage. Storage space had long been a problem for the museum collection. (A lack of place to store objects probably contributed to the displays' cluttered appearance when Heaton was in charge — he displayed just about everything!) As artifacts were pulled from exhibit to create a less crowded appearance, finding a space to safely store them became a challenge. In early 1966 Superintendent Hamilton arranged for a storage cabinet at Zion National Park to be designated for the monument's stored items. Not all items could be fit into the cabinet however. In August 1966 Olsen discovered the monument's mounted heads of a cougar and wild pig were damaged by rodents, due to improper storage.

Donations to the monument's collections in 1966 included a 100-year-old cello, four branding irons, old trunks, garments, a wagon chain hitch, a paper hook, and photographs of Mr. and Mrs. Anson P. Winsor, Jr. During the year, as in years past, a number of small artifacts were reported missing (presumed stolen) from fort displays. As much as they tried, guides could not always be with visitors, particularly if they were in the midst of a demonstration or with another group. On occasion and out of necessity, individuals were sometimes allowed to tour the fort on an informal basis without a guide.

Jean Swearingen's visit to the monument in May 1967 and her subsequent report to Regional Director Beard and Zion and Pipe Spring officials was referenced in an earlier section. (See "Monument Administration" section.) In May 1968 Ray Geerdes picked up a donation of the telegraph table used by Luella Stewart from the Stewart Robinson family in Kanab. In June he took the table and the fort's first telephone to Wesley McAllister in Kanab for refurbishing. That month Melva Whitmore Latimer, great-granddaughter of James M. Whitmore, donated some historic-period clothing to the monument.

In late April 1969, Charles S. Pope of the Park's Service Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation in Washington, D.C., inspected the fort and two cabins for wiring, heating, lighting, and moisture control. (See "Historic Structures" section.)

Water Issues (pre-1968)

In late 1963 Norman Heaton of Cedar City, Utah, son of 83-year old Fred C. Heaton, wrote Superintendent Oberhansley requesting information about the stockmen's water rights at Pipe Spring. His father was one of the Heaton brothers included in the stockmen's group who owned a one-third interest in Pipe Spring water. The request was forwarded to the regional office. Acting Regional Director J. M. Carpenter consulted with A. van V. Dunn and communicated with Regional Director Beard and Director Hartzog. There was opposition at the regional office level to releasing Pipe Spring file materials to Norman Heaton, partly because most did not relate to Heaton's area of concern. There was nothing in the Park Service files indicating how the stockmen handled the division of their one-third share of water. Oberhansley informed Heaton that any rights his father Fred C. Heaton might have to water at Pipe Spring "must stem from the one-third right agreed to by the stockmen, the Indian Service, and the National Park Service," recognized in the regulations issued November 2, 1933. [2094] Oberhansley enclosed a copy of the 1933 agreement in his letter and suggested Norman Heaton contact former Custodian Leonard Heaton for more information on the division of water.

In July 1964 the BLM proposed using the old CCC camp located three miles south of Pipe Spring as a Youth Conservation Corps (Job Corps) site. Its proposal included a plan to have water supplied from Pipe Spring. That month Oberhansley called the BLM to ask what the total volume of water was issuing from the Pipe Spring outlet. He was informed that the flow was 58 gallons per minute, as last measured on April 4, 1963. [2095] It appears the BLM's plan was not implemented, at least not with Pipe Spring water.

For water matters associated with tribal developments of the late 1960s see earlier section, "Planning and Development with the Kaibab Paiute Tribe and Associated Water Issues."

Deaths, Accidents, Missing Persons, and Family Matters

Deaths

In January 1964 Bozarth and Olsen attended the funeral of Mrs. Della Robertson in Alton. Mrs. Robertson was Edna Heaton's mother. On September 19, 1964, Leonard Heaton's father, Charles C. Heaton, died in Kanab. He was buried behind the LDS Church in Moccasin. On August 2, 1967, Ray Mose's wife Serene died in Kanab. She had been ill for several years with diabetes. The plane crash deaths on January 10, 1968, of Tribal Chairman Vernon Jake and others traveling with him were mentioned in an earlier section.

Accidents

Shortly after the official dedication of State Highway 389, a serious personal injury accident occurred one mile west of the monument on October 14, 1967. Jim Harter and Joe Bolander assisted the Arizona Highway Patrol at the scene of the accident. Also that month Bolander had an on-duty accident, and he had to undergo a hernia operation on November 9. He was away from the monument for one month while recovering.

Missing Persons

On November 25, 1969, Geerdes was called out as deputy sheriff to assist in locating the Ellison family from Fredonia. The mother and two teenagers failed to return home the previous evening. The three finally showed up at Pipe Spring at 2 p.m. having been stuck on a road above Cane Beds all night. [2096]

On January 21, 1969, Mel Heaton and NYC-enrollee Tim Rogers failed to return from a trip to BLM land where they were cutting posts to enlarge the monument's corral complex. Geerdes and a BLM official went to search from them in a four-wheel-drive vehicle and got stuck themselves on a dirt road leading from Moccasin to the Coral Pink Sand Dunes. They stayed in the vehicle until 7 a.m. the next morning then walked about four miles to Moccasin. Owen Johnson and others from Moccasin located Heaton and Rogers about 3 a.m. the next morning. [2097]

Family Matters

The Bozarths attended the graduation of their son from high school at Wasatch Academy on May 25, 1965. In October that year, Joe Bolander's 16-year-old son suffered broken bones when his horse fell on him after accidentally running into a closed wire gate at night. In December Lenore Bozarth was hospitalized in St. George for five days, suffering from pneumonia.

Law Enforcement

Monument staff became increasingly concerned about visitor safety as traffic increased through the monument. Driven erratically westbound through the monument in March 1964, a Wonder Bread truck jumped the curb, knocked down a "slow" sign as well as a tree, and kept on going. A report was made to the Arizona Highway Patrol. Shortly after, monument signage indicating a pedestrian crossing lane and slower speed were relocated to be more visible on the approaches to the fort.

In February 1965 Bozarth reported "a fast driving, firearm shooting black sedan driver" was stopped on State Highway 389 that passed through the monument by the sheriff and a highway patrolman. "We were advised that the driver-shooter was the repeater type," wrote Bozarth, grateful for the assistance from local law enforcement officers. [2098] Traffic continued to pose a safety problem until the new bypass road (State Highway 389) was opened during the summer of 1967 (see "Area Roads" section).

On September 19, 1966, a young, white, hitchhiking male was given food and clothing at the monument after having been beaten by some drunken Kaibab Paiute. (The victim's location at the time of the beating was not recorded; he was most likely hitchhiking through the reservation.) A Mohave County deputy sheriff tended to the legal charges.

Another serious incident occurred on the evening of June 17, 1968, when a group of adult and juvenile Kaibab Paiute from Moccasin entered the monument. The group had been drinking. During their stay, a fight broke out between two teenage boys, resulting in a stabbing of one of the boys. Geerdes and Malmquist took the injured youth to the Kanab hospital where the boy later recovered from his wounds. [2099] Ray Geerdes subsequently contacted tribal officials, BIA officials at Keams Canyon, and the Mohave County sheriff at Kingman. It quickly became apparent to Geerdes that Pipe Spring National Monument was a jurisdictional "no-man's-land." No Indian Service law enforcement officials were located in the area, tribal officials said they had no jurisdiction over events transpiring on monument grounds, and the Mohave County sheriff felt he had no jurisdiction either. [2100] During late August 1968, Geerdes made a trip to Kingman, Arizona (the Mohave County seat), to discuss law enforcement and jurisdiction matters with a judge, a county attorney, and the sheriff. Apparently, county officials saw the problem as primarily one of distance - Pipe Spring was 300 miles away from Kingman. In true Western style, they solved that problem by making Ray Geerdes a deputy sheriff! His commission was to be exercised only within the boundaries of the monument, however. In October the reservation hired a full-time Indian policeman, Bernard Lucero, who resided with his family in Fredonia.

On November 3, 1968, another incident on monument grounds involved a young Navajo man named Stan Littleman, who staff discovered entering monument buildings and cars; he was turned over to the Indian policeman, Bernard Lucero. Tried in magistrate's court in Fredonia, he was banished from the reservation for six months. [2101] On November 19 a law enforcement meeting was held at Geerdes' residence to continue the dialogue on integrating efforts, with Mohave County deputies from Moccasin, Pipe Spring, and Colorado City, Ren Brown (magistrate judge from Moccasin), Bernard Lucero, and Vernon Jake attending. As a result, Geerdes reported the situation "radically improved" with no more incidents reported over the winter of 1968-1969. [2102]

In late September 1969, Mel Heaton and Joe Bolander both attended Park Service Law Enforcement school at Bryce Canyon National Park.

Movies

On June 19, 1968, a representative of Film Service Corporation from Salt Lake City visited the monument to take pictures. In July that year, several representatives of a Los Angeles, California, film production company, Madison Productions, Inc., inspected the Pipe Spring area to consider filming a "Death Valley Days" episode there. They were given permission from Zion officials to film at the monument in late July and were required to file the appropriate application and to post a $2,500 bond. Their contract also required that a 16 mm copy of each episode be provided to the Park Service. In granting permission, officials made one additional request of the production manager:

The historical integrity of Pipe Spring is most important to us; consequently, we hope that your film sequence will depict actual historical facts, not fiction. If possible, we would like for Historian Geerdes to review the script. Too, Mr. Geerdes will be happy to assist you in a realistic approach to any portion of the script. [2103]

As it turned out, Geerdes would have little control over the historical accuracy of the filming. He reported to Gilbert in early September that one of the proposed episodes recreated events at Pipe Spring fort when Luella Stewart was the telegraph operator. Jacob Hamblin (played by Robert Taylor) was portrayed as head of fort operations. "This not only does violence to Anson Perry Winsor but Jacob Hamblin as well, but there apparently is nothing that can be done," wrote Geerdes. [2104] The stories in the other two episodes, while shot at Pipe Spring, had nothing at all to do with the site's history. From September 18 to 27, the company filmed three episodes of "Death Valley Days" at the monument. The first few days of shooting, Allen Malmquist was acting in Geerdes' absence (who was on holiday in Hawaii) and Joe Bolander was there as well. Geerdes returned a few days into the shooting. A crew of about 40 people (including actors, technicians, and directors) worked daily on the production. Park visitors had access to the fort and were able to observe the filming. Geerdes later reported that the crew was very cooperative and no damage was done to the area. [2105] The company had the bedclothes, rugs, and table cloths used in filming professionally cleaned at their expense as well as made a present to the monument of an authentic 35-star flag. The check held as bond was returned to Madison Productions with a letter of commendation from Superintendent Gilbert on the manner of filming which was carried out, "practically [with] no interference to the regular visitor use" of the facility. [2106] Representatives of the company returned to the area on July 12, 1969, to film several opening sequences to the episodes shot in September 1968.

Area Roads

State Highway 389 (the Hurricane-Fredonia road) was still in need of completion in 1964. The portion west of Pipe Spring to Colorado City was still just a dirt road of sand, gravel, and clay. The paved part of the road east of the monument to Fredonia was in frequent need of repair as heavy truck traffic broke up the road's chipped and sealed surface faster than road crews could patch it. The four-mile road to Moccasin off of State Highway 389 was dirt. A bid for rerouting three miles of surfaced road and three bridges along State Highway 389 was rejected as too high in October 1964. State traffic counters were installed at the east and west entrances to the monument that December while state surveyors restaked the reroute of State Highway 389 west of the monument. Over the winter of 1964-1965, an archeological crew began working along the proposed right-of-way of the reroute. David Acton of the Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff directed the survey crew, mostly Kaibab Paiute from the reservation. By February 1965 the crew had unearthed several pithouses of Pueblo I-II time period as well as a storage cist and burial. Gwinn Vivian and Richard Sense of the University of Arizona directed additional reconnaissance survey work along the road route in June; Mr. and Mrs. William Wade of the Museum of Northern Arizona directed the work during October and November. The latter's work crew camped at Pipe Spring while work was undertaken. Superintendent Oberhansley viewed the archeological activity as one that would yield information useful to Pipe Spring National Monument's interpretive program as it expanded to include the Native American context.

In addition to poor road conditions, an absence of directional signage along State Highway 389 created confusion for visitors. Many visitors left the monument heading west on the dirt road then returned to Pipe Spring to ask if they were on the road to Hurricane. At the Park Service's request in January 1964, the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) posted new directional signage along the road.

On February 19, 1965, a contract was awarded to Brown Construction Company of Phoenix to construct three miles of road west of Fredonia and to build three bridges. Construction began by ADOT road crews on March 17 on the new road west of Pipe Spring. The job foreman inquired about the use of local water to compact earth fills and the Tribe agreed to furnish water from their reservoir just outside the monument (the "Indian pond") at a cost to the contractor of 25 cents per thousand gallons. Construction of the monument bypass section of the road began in November; at that time it was expected to be completed in July 1966. On October 23, 1965, ADOT opened bids for the building of State Highway 389 from Fredonia to 1.1 miles west of the monument, and Stout Construction Company of Las Vegas was awarded the contract. On May 5, 1966, another contract was awarded to Wells Stewart of Las Vegas for construction work on the road west of Pipe Spring.

Bozarth reported that State Highway 389 from Fredonia to Pipe Spring was "sub-surfaced" by November 1966, ready for an application of hot mix surfacing. About this time Mohave County road officials were in contact with the BIA to discuss needed improvements to the four-mile road leading to Kaibab Village and Moccasin. By August 1966 a contract had been awarded for the surfacing of the road from Fredonia to 1.5 miles west of Pipe Spring. The base coat surface was applied in the fall and the seal coat the following spring of 1967. Roadwork was suspended over the winter of 1966-1967 due to weather. Heavy trucks were already using the base-coated highway, however.

As mentioned in the "Monument Administration" section, State Highway 389 was opened to the public on May 27, 1967. The formal dedication of the road took place on August 5, 1967. The unpaved road to Moccasin from State Highway 389 still made area travel difficult at times. During and after heavy snowfalls in 1968, it was impassible much of the time. In late August 1969, construction began on a new road to Kaibab Village and Moccasin. Funded by the BIA, the road construction contract was awarded to Nielsons Inc. of Cortez, Colorado. Construction was completed by late spring of 1970.